Behavioural Psychology 6th Semester BSN Notes

Topics
Educational
Unit 1 Platform AD
· Introduction to Behavioural Psychology

· Various perspectives
· Significance of Behavioral Psychology in various spheres of life.
Unit 2
· Neurobiology and developmental psychology.
· Genetic and environmental influences on behaviour.
Unit 3
Person perception: How we see ourselves and others.
Unit 4
Interpersonal communication
· Psychological processes in interpersonal communication.
Day/Date
· Achieving effective communication Topics
in complex situation (crises) Faculty
Unit 1
· Introduction to Behavioural Psychology
Unit 5
· Various perspectives
Gender and behavior
· Significance of Behavioral Psychology in
Stereotype traditional gender role
various spheres of life.
Unit 2
Unit 6 · Neurobiology and developmental
Overview of Adult Development
psychology.
Unit 7 · Genetic and environmental influences on
behaviour.
Health Psychology
Unit 8
Stress and its effects
Unit 9
Theories of personality and behavior
Unit 10
Counseling.
Educational Platform AD
Behavioral Psychology
(introduction)
Ashfaq Ahmad sahil
Lecturer INS (KMU)
31-Mar-21 1
Objectives
At the end of this unit learners will be able to:

• Define term Psychology.
• Describe goals of psychology.
• Explain historical roots of modern psychology.
• Identify different school of thoughts.
• Define Behavioral Psychology.
• Outline the major perspectives which developed
into modern psychology.
31-Mar-21 2
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
• “Psychology is the scientific study of behavior
and mental processes …. Human or Animal”
• Behavior is overt, manifest, obvious, and easy
to study; the mental processes that help
carryout these behaviors are covert,
underlying, hidden, and not easy to study.
• Besides behavior, what causes these behaviors
to occur and the mental processes involved in it
is an important area of interest for a psychologist.
31-Mar-21 3
Goals of Psychology
• To understand the nature and mechanisms of
behavior and mental processes
• To develop an understanding of the relationship
between behavior and mental processes.
• To apply this understanding to real life situations
and, on the basis of this understanding, predict
for the future.
• To employ the scientific approach for developing
this understanding.
31-Mar-21 4
5 Goals of Psychology
1. Observe
– Exam, watch, or interview a person’s behavior.
2. Describe
– Record specific behavior under certain situations.
3. Explain
– Give reasons for behavior in terms of feeling of anxiety or
distraction.
4.Predict
– Determine how a person will behave under a certain situation.
5. Control
– Change the behavior or mental process by teaching patient
new ways of keeping their anxiety under control.
31-Mar-21 5
Historical Roots of Modern Psychology
Study of Soul
Study of Mind
Study of
Conscious
Experience
Study of
Behavior
31-Mar-21 6
Study of Soul
• In 1590, Rudolf Goeckel used the term “psychology”. This
word is the combination of two Greek words “ psyche” and “
logos”, the former means the “ soul” and the later “ discursive
knowledge”.
• Thus literally, psychology means the science of soul.
• Aristotle gave a very important place to soul in human life.
• Life has no meaning without soul. But he couldn’t explain the
relationship of the soul to the body.
• The problem of the relationship between body and soul
persisted for centuries.
• Later on, the spiritual aspect was discarded altogether and
substituted by a more comprehensive word “mind”.
31-Mar-21 7
Study of Mind
• Psychology was also defined as the “science of mind”. But
psychologists were never satisfied with this definition
because mind was a vague term that could not be defined
in objective terms.
• Mind and mental experiences were primarily subjective in
nature. Therefore the later psychologists switched their
positions and began investigations into behavior that was
an objective and observable phenomenon.
• The “mind approach” in psychology was rejected because
mind can not be studied using scientific procedures;
besides there is no scientific way to determine whether an
entity such as mind actually exists.
31-Mar-21 8
Study of Consciousness
• Psychology has also been defined as the science of

consciousness.
• Structuralism, an important early school of thought in
psychology, considered psychology as the study of
conscious experience.
• In the words of Wilhelm Wundt, “psychology has to
investigate that which we call internal processes or
experiences---- i.e., our own sensations and feelings, our
thoughts and wishes in contradistinction to the subject of
external experience”.
31-Mar-21 9
Cont.…….
• The word consciousness does not include

animal or human behavior.
• Psychology also studies unconscious and
sub- conscious processes.
• Therefore there is sufficient rationale
behind the belief that it cannot be called
the science of consciousness alone.
31-Mar-21 10
Study of Behavior
• Modern psychologists define it as a science of behavior,
both of animals and humans.
• It was Watson, the founder of the behaviorist school of
thought, who postulated this definition.
• This definition is comprehensive in the sense that it
identifies behaviors that are overt and can be observed. But
this definition also has some limitations.
• This definition takes behavior in a very narrow sense;
behavior, as Watson saw it, was merely stimulus-response.
• Behavior, for modern psychologists, includes both the overt
behavior as well as the mental processes that accompany
those behaviors i.e., the inner experiences that carry out
31- M ar -2 1 11
th ose behaviors
Earlier Schools Of Thought

• Structuralism: focused on studying the conscious
experience by looking into its individual parts or elements.
• Structuralism entailed early concepts of psychology and
primarily used the procedure called introspection (in which
the subjects were asked to describe in detail what they
were experiencing when they were exposed to a
• stimulus) in order to study the mind.
• Functionalism: It is an approach that concentrated on
what the mind does; the functions of mental activity, and
the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their
environments.
• This school founded by the American psychologist William
31-M a r-2 1 12
Ja m es.
Cont.….
• Gestalt psychology: focused on studying the whole

experience of a person rather than breaking it into
individual components.
• They concentrated on how people consider individual
elements as units or wholes.
31-Mar-21 13
What is behavioral psychology?
• “Behavioral psychology is the study of the connection

between our minds and our behavior”.
• Sometimes you will hear behavioral psychology referred to
as behaviorism.
• The researchers and scientists who study behavioral
psychology are trying to understand why we behave the way
we do and they are concerned with discovering patterns in
our actions and behaviors.
• The hope is that if we can use behavioral psychology to help
us predict how humans will behave, we can build better
habits as individuals, create better products as companies,
and develop better living spaces as communities.
31-Mar-21 14
What is Behavior?
Any action that others can observe and measures:
–Walking
–Talking
–Physical movements
31-Mar-21 15
Prevalent Approaches / Models /

Perspectives
• Biological Approach
• The psychological model that views behavior from the
perspective of biological functioning..
• An understanding of biochemical processes will give an
understanding of psychological and social phenomena.
• Physical structures and hereditary processes determine
behavior or behavior potential.
• Physical/physiological interventions can alter mental
processes and behavior.
• Root cause of abnormalities and disorders lies in biology
and requires medical intervention.
31-Mar-21 16
Neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters and Their Role
• Acetylcholine: Learning, Memory and Muscle control
• Dopamine: Motor activity, Coordination, Emotion and
Memory
• Epinephrine: Emotion, Stress
• GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid): Anxiety,
Arousal, Learning
• Serotonin: Sensory Processing, Sleep, Arousal
• Glutamate: Anxiety, Mood
31-Mar-21 17
Psychodynamic Approach
• The approach that concentrates on the belief that

behavior is motivated by the inner forces, over which
individuals have little control.
• Founded by the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud in
early 1900s.
• Psychodynamic perspective give importance to the inner
unconscious experiences and the forces that led that
behavior.
• Freud’s work has provided a way not only for treating
mental disorders but also for understanding everyday
phenomena such a prejudice and aggression.
31-Mar-21 18
Cont.….
• One of the main ideas is that there is an inner
tension for the fulfillment of instincts, the tension
leads to action for fulfillment, the fulfillment leads
to reduced tension.
• Psychodynamic Model of Personality is a three-
part structure of the mind; containing id, ego and
super ego.
31-Mar-21 19
Behaviorist / Behavioral Approach
• The psychological model that focuses on the overt

observable behavior.
• This is a psychological approach that considers the
relationship between behavior and environmental stimuli
as the focus of study.
• The model emerged as a reaction to the earlier
approaches that emphasized the significance of hidden,
underlying, predetermined forces.
• The behaviorists suggest that observable behavior alone
should be the main area of interest to psychology.
31-Mar-21 20
Cont.….
• The Law of Effect: Any response that leads to an
outcome that is satisfying for the organism is likely to be
repeated; a response leading to an outcome that is not
satisfying is not likely to be repeated.
• Classical Conditioning: The Theory

• Is a type of learning in which a previously neutral
stimulus starts eliciting a response that was originally
attached to a natural stimulus, because the neutral
stimulus has been closely associated with the other
stimulus.
31-Mar-21 21
Humanistic Approach
• The psychological model, that suggests that people are in control of
their lives.
• It is considered as one of the most recent approaches to
psychology.
• This approach rejected the view, that predetermined, automatic,
biological forces, unconscious processes or the environment
determines behavior.
• It proposes that people themselves decide about their lives.
• A failure in being capable of doing so leads to psychological
problems.
• It also stresses the idea that people, by nature, tend to move
towards higher levels of maturity and maximum potential.
• Free will: Humans possess the ability to make decisions about their
31-Mar-21 22
life.
Cognitive Approach
• The psychological model that focuses on how

people know, understands, and thinks about the
world.
• Main emphasis is on how people understand of
the world, and their thinking, affects their
responses; how it may lead to positive or
negative psychological consequences, and even
health-related outcomes.
• Such processes include perception, memory,
thinking, problem solving, imagining, and
3•1-Mlaar-n21guage. 23
Evolutionary Approach
• How human behaviors required for

survival have adopted in the face of
environmental pressures & evolution.
• Influenced by Darwin.
31-Mar-21 24
Sociocultural Perspective
• Importance of social and cultural

influences on behavior, as well as
interpreting others behaviors.
31-Mar-21 25
31-Mar-21 26
(UNIT II)
BIOLOGY & BEHAVIOR

Ashfaq Ahmad Sahil
Lecturer INS (KMU)
Objectives
• Discuss biological influences on behavior
• Discuss how heredity and environment interact to
produce the development of behavior.
• Discuss research methods used in behavior genetic
research.
Nature versus Nurture.

• One of the major debates in psychology has long
centered over the relative contributions of nature
versus nurture.
• Those who take up the nurture side of the debate

suggest that it is the environment that plays the
greatest role in shaping behavior.
• The biological perspective tends to stress the

importance of nature.
Biological influences on behavior

• The study of physiology and biological processes has
played a significant role in psychology since
its earliest beginnings.
• It was Charles Darwin who first introduced the
idea that evolution and genetics play a role in

human behavior.
• Natural selection influences whether certain behavior
patterns are passed down to future generations.
• Behaviors that aid in survival are more likely to be
passed down while those that prove dangerous are
less likely to be inherited.
Biological influences on behavior

• Based on the assumption of Materialism i.e., all
behavior has a physiological basis.
• Physical structures and hereditary processes

determine behavior or behavior potential.
• Physical/physiological interventions can alter

mental processes and behavior.
• Root cause of abnormalities and disorders lies in

biology and requires medical intervention.
Biological Psychologists Interested in…….

• Analyzing how trauma to the brain influences behaviors
• Investigating how degenerative brain diseases impact
how people act.
• Exploring how genetic factors influence such things as
aggression.
• Studying how genetics and brain damage are linked to
mental disorders.
• Assessing the differences and similarities in twins to
determine which characteristics are tied to genetics and
which are linked to environmental influences.
Theories in biological model

Biochemical theory:
• Very small amounts of certain chemicals in the body can
cause profound changes in behavior as proved by
researches.
Diathesis-Stress Theory
• Predisposition i.e., diathesis (including genes) and stressful
environment combine together to cause abnormal behavior.
• Traits are influenced by genes and by environment
Focus of Study
Neurotransmitters
• The synapse of the neuron releases special
chemicals “neurotransmitters”
• Existence of neurotransmitters has been known since
1920’s; but the evidence of their relationship
• with psychological disorders has been found and
known since 1950s.
• More than 50 neurotransmitters exist in human body.
Neurotransmitters and Their Role
• Acetylcholine: Learning, Memory and Muscle control

• Dopamine: Motor activity, Coordination, Emotion and
Memory
• Epinephrine: Emotion, Stress
• GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid): Anxiety, Arousal,
Learning
• Serotonin: Sensory Processing, Sleep, Arousal
• Glutamate: Anxiety, Mood
Focus of study cont.…..

Endocrine Glands
• These glands form the body’s “slow” chemical
communication system; a set of ductless glands that
secrete hormones (special chemicals) into the
bloodstream”.
• Low secretions of the thyroid produce anxiety like
symptoms such as irritability and tension
• Low level of pituitary secretions produces depression like
symptoms—Fatigue, apathy etc.
• Abnormal secretions of hormones may cause major
depression
Heredity
• Every human being is born as a result of conception
which takes place due to certain biological Factors and
process.
• The child carries with himself several physiological and
psychological uniqueness that are present in the parents.
• In fact it is the heredity that determines structure,
complexion, structure of hair, height. Facial features nasal
index etc. of the child.
• Thus different types of the genes help in the formation of
a body.
Basics of Genetics
Gene - basic unit of heredity; codes for a specific

trait.
Locus - the specific location of a gene on a
chromosome (plural loci).
Chromosome - elongated cellular structure
composed of DNA and protein; they are the
vehicles which carry DNA in cells.
Environment
• Environment is nothing but the sum total of the
surroundings in which an individual has to live.
• Psychologically an individual’s environment is

related to all those stimuli which he faces from
the moment of fertilization till death.
Role of heredity and environment in the

development of behavior
• The individual’s personality is the product of both heredity
and environment.
• In some cases heredity may overpower development and
in certain other cases environment may very strongly
influence growth and development.
• It is because of this difference, individuals differ in
physique, character and other personality traits.
• A Child’s development represent the interaction of
Heredity and Environment.
• Heredity determines the potential of child, while the
Environment influences the extent to which that potential
is achieved.
Cont.…..
• Both heredity and environment have their share in
molding the life and personality of the individual.
• Heredity is responsible for all the inborn traits, the
instincts, emotions, I.Q., reflex action and physical
traits.
• Environment is responsible for the growth and
development of the physical, mental and social traits.
• The two forces heredity and environment are not
opposed to each other, but are complementary like
seed and soil.
Cont.….
• The heredity is the raw material out of which the
object is to be prepared, and environment in the
technique and other material for the manufacture.
• Two individuals of the same heredity might differ
when put in dissimilar environments
• Again two individuals of differing heredity would
probably differ in spite of identical environments.
• So we can predict that if we change either factor, the
product is changed.
Twin studies
• Twin studies
compare similarities between different types of twins
to determine the genetic basis of specific traits.
• Monozygotic twins, also called identical twins, are the

result of one zygote dividing into two, each having the
same chromosomes and the genes they contain.
• Dizygotic twins, sometimes called fraternal or

nonidentical twins, are the result of two separately
fertilized eggs and are no more related than any other pair
of siblings.
Behavior Genetics
Identical Fraternal • Identical Twins
twins twins
• develop from a single
zygote (fertilized egg)
that splits in two, creating
two genetic replicas
• Fraternal Twins
• develop from separate
zygotes
• genetically no closer than
brothers and sisters, but
they share the fetal
environment
Same Same or
sex only opposite sex
Example
• Identical twins look exactly the same because each twin shares the same
genes as their identical sibling. Why?
• When a mother is pregnant, the fertilized egg holds the mixture of genes
from both the mother and father.
• Occasionally this fertilized egg splits into two eggs with the exact same
mixture of genes.
• This results in two identical people who are similar to one another in the
way they look and behave.
• Genes can carry instructions that can make it more likely for you to
develop certain illnesses or conditions.
• For example, Jennifer and Karen both have genes associated with
obesity. Their genes could tell their body to:
 increase the size of their fat cells or dictate how they use fat in their body
 release chemicals (like hormones) which control hunger and appetite
 influence behavior as Jennifer and Karen interact with their
environment. For example, if Karen begins to gain weight, she may seek
out fewer opportunities to exercise because going to the gym makes
her feel uncomfortable.
How do your life experiences influence

your genes?
• Suppose Jennifer is raised by wealthy parents who have
access to the best, healthiest foods.
• Her parents cook nutritious meals like vegetable risotto
and lentil soup and limit the amount of sugar, salt, and fat
their daughter consumes.
• Jennifer learns to love fruits and vegetables, and doesn’t
crave excessively salty or sweet foods.
• Her parents have a significant amount of time to play with
her and teach her to live an active lifestyle.
• By eating nutritious foods and staying physically active,
the genes increasing her chance of developing obesity
are not expressed and she never develops obesity.
Cont.…….
• Karen however is raised by low-income parents who live
in an area where fresh, healthy food is scarce and
expensive.
• Because her parents can’t afford fruits and vegetables,
Karen eats a lot of frozen, packaged meals and fast food,
which are higher in sugar, fat, and salt.
• Her parents both work multiple jobs, and Karen spends
her time alone in front of the television.
• Karen’s eating and physical activity habits enhance the
expression of her genes for obesity.
Research methods used in behavior

genetic research
STUDENTS ACTIVITY
(UNIT III) PERSON PERCEPTION

How we see ourselves and others
ASHFAQ AHMAD SAHIL
LECTURER INS (KMU)
Objectives
 Understand basic principles of social perception.
 Understand the process of self and other perception and
sources of errors involved in formulating such
perceptions.
 Discuss perceptual inaccuracy with reference to
prejudice.
 Identify ways to approach self and others positively.
Social Psychology
 The branch of psychology that studies how people think, feel,
and behave in social situations.
 Two Basic Areas of Social Psychology:
1. Social cognition is the study of the mental processes

people use to make sense out of their social environment
2. Social influence is the study of the effect of situational
factors and other people on an individual’s behavior
Perception
“A way of regarding, understanding, or interpreting
something; a mental impression”
OR
“Perception is the organization, identification, and
interpretation of sensory information in order to
represent and understand the presented
information, or the environment.”
Person perception
 In social psychology, the term person perception refers to
the different mental processes that we use to form
impressions of other people.
 This allows us to make snap judgments and decisions, but it
can also lead to biased or stereotyped perceptions of other
people.
 There are two types on person perception. Indirect Person
Perception and direct person perception.
Types of person perception

Indirect Person Perception
 Many of the personal attributes that observers may want to know
about another person (e.g., whether the person is loyal, honest,
or contemptible) are not directly observable.
Direct person perception

 Many of the personal attributes that observers notice about
another person need not be inferred because they are directly
observable and are therefore noted immediately.
 Some of these attributes include categorical judgments about
other people such as their sex, race, and age.
Situation
You are buying a used car.You asked
the owner whether there is anything
wrong with it. He looks you in the
eye and says, “No way! This car is in
perfect shape.” Do you believe him?
Situation
Imagine that you are a professor.The day
after you give a midterm exam to your
class, one of the students comes to see
you and, with a look of pure innocence,
says: “I’m sorry i missed the exam, due
to death of my uncle and I want to take a
makeup exam?” Do you accept this story?
SOCIAL PERCEPTION
 “An active process (or set of processes) through which we
seek to know and understand others”.
 It is one of the most basic—and important aspects of social
life.
 We try to understand other person’s current feelings, moods
and emotions—how they are feeling right now, often
provided by nonverbal cues involving facial expressions, eye
contact, body posture and movements.
 We attempt to understand the more lasting causes behind
others’ behavior—the reasons why they have acted in certain
ways—motives, intentions and traits.
Attribution
 Attribution is being able to successfully identify a person's
behavior based on the current context of the situation
 Attribution is the process through which we link behavior to
its causes - to the intentions, dispositions and events that
explain why people act the way they do.
 For example, if you are at a wedding, you attribute
everyone's happiness because getting married is a cause to
celebrate.
 Attribution helps individuals understand and rationalize the
behavior of others through the use of information gathered
by observation.
Types of Attribution
Dispositional Attribution
Dispositional attribution assigns the cause of behavior to some
internal characteristic of a person, rather than to outside
forces.
Situational Attribution
The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some situation
or event outside a person's control rather than to some internal
characteristic.
Kelley's Covariation Model

 Kelley’s (1967) covariation model is the best-known
attribution theory.
 He developed a logical model for judging whether a
particular action should be attributed to some characteristic
(dispositional) of the person or the environment
(situational).
 He argues that in trying to discover the causes of behavior
people act like scientists. More specifically they take into
account three kinds of evidence.
Cont.……
 Consensus: the extent to which other people behave in the same
way in a similar situation.
 For example: If everybody in the audience is laughing, the consensus
is high. If onlyTom is laughing consensus is low.
 Distinctiveness: the extent to which the person behaves in the same
way in similar situations.
 For example: IfTom only laughs at this comedian, the distinctiveness
is high. IfTom laughs at everything, then distinctiveness is low.
 Consistency: the extent to which the person behaves like this every
time the situation occurs.
 For example: IfTom always laughs at this comedian the consistency is
high. IfTom rarely laughs at this comedian, then consistency is low.
Errors in perception
The mental processes that people use to make sense out of their
social environment.
1. Implicit personality theory
2. Projection
3. Halo effect
4. Stereotypes
5. Selective perception
Implicit Personality Theories

 A network of assumptions about the relationship among
various types of people, traits, and behaviors.
 Form cognitive schemas through our previous experiences
that we begin to associate with different “types” of people.
 When we perceive someone to be a particular “type” we
assume the person will display the traits & behaviors that
others of that “type” display.
 A useful shortcut but not always accurate.
 For example, the trait honesty is associated with hard
working.All hard working people are perceived to be honest.
Selective Perception
 perceptual selectivity refers to the tendency to select certain
objects from the environment.
 The objects which are selected are those which are relevant
and appropriate for an individual or those which are
consistent with his existing beliefs, values and needs.
 Selectivity enables the perceiver to screen out others, but in
this there is a risk of drawing an inaccurate picture.
 Because we see what we want to see, we can draw
unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation.
 People, sometimes, distort meanings so that they may fit
with what they want.
Stereotyping
 Stereotyping means judging someone on the basis of one’s
perception of the group to which that person belongs.
 This is a basic human tendency to perceive an individual as
belonging to a single class or category and hence, attributing
favorable or unfavorable characteristics to the individual
based upon a widely held generalization about the group.
 Some examples of common stereo types are that Americans
are materialistic, Japanese are nationalistic and Germans are
industrious.
Halo effect
 The halo effect refers to the tendency of judging people on
the basis of a single trait which may be good or bad,
favourable or unfavourable.
 The halo effect is very similar to stereotyping, whereas in
stereotyping the person is perceived according to a single
category, under the halo effect the person is perceived on the
basis of a single trait.
 Sometimes, we judge a person by one first impression about
him or her. For example, if a person is kind he may also be
perceived as good, able, helpful, cheerful, nice, intelligent
and so on.
Projection
 It is easy to judge others if we assume that they are similar to
us.When one’s own personal attributes are assigned to
others, then projection takes place.
 A manager who loves challenging work may assume that all
others like challenging work too.
 If you yourself are honest and trustworthy you take it for
granted that other people are equally honest and trustworthy.

Ways to approach self and others

positively
 Pay less attention to negative thoughts.
 Be kind to yourself
 Change your language
 Start a daily gratitude practice
 Go outdoors
 Give back to others
 Exercise regularly
 Don’t try so hard!
 Just listening
Cont.……
 Learn to take criticism in a healthy way
 Positive Posture
 Eat healthy
 Get enough quality sleep
 Share your issues
 Find the positive viewpoint in a negative situation
 Add value and positivity to someone else’s life.
 Leave work at work
 Give yourself a break
 keep learning
 Reward yourself for your accomplishments
(UNIT IV)
INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
ASHFAQ AHMAD SAHIL
LECTURER INS (KMU)
Objectives

 Demonstrate the understanding of the ways
involved in achieving effective communication.
 Demonstrate understanding of using effective
communication in complex situations.
 Identify circumstances leading to self-disclosure.
 Develop understanding of the role of self-
disclosure in psychological health and its use in
interpersonal conflicts
Communication
 Communication is the activity of conveying information
through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or
information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or
behaviour.
OR
 A process by which information is exchanged between
individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or
behaviour.
Effective Communication
 Effective communication is a process of exchanging ideas,
thoughts, knowledge and information such that the
purpose or intention is fulfilled in the best possible
manner.
 In simple words, it is nothing but the presentation of
views by the sender in a way best understood by the
receiver.
Characteristics of Effective Communication

Cont.……
 Clear Message:The message which the sender wants to
convey must be simple, easy to understand and
systematically framed to retain its meaningfulness.
 Correct Message:The information communicated must
not be vague or false in any sense; it must be free from
errors and grammatical mistakes.
 Complete Message: Communication is the base for
decision making. If the information is incomplete, it may
lead to wrong decisions.
 Precise Message:The message sent must be short and
concise to facilitate straightforward interpretation and
take the desired steps.
Cont.……
 Reliability:The sender must be sure from his end that
whatever he is conveying is right by his knowledge. Even
the receiver must have trust on the sender and can rely
on the message sent.
 Consideration of the Recipient:The medium of
communication and other physical settings must be
planned, keeping in mind the attitude, language,
knowledge, education level and position of the receiver.
 Sender’s Courtesy:The message so drafted must reflect
the sender’s courtesy, humbleness and respect towards
the receiver.
Effective Communication Skills

Cont.…….
 Observance: A person must possess sharp observing skills to
gain more and more knowledge and information.
 Clarity and Brevity:The message must be drafted in simple
words, and it should be clear and precise to create the desired
impact over the receiver.
 Listening and Understanding:The most crucial skill in a
person is he must be a good, alert and patient listener. He must
be able to understand and interpret the message well.
 Emotional Intelligence: A person must be emotionally aware
and the ability to influence others from within.
 Self-Efficacy: Also, he/she must have faith in himself and his
capabilities to achieve the objectives of communication.
Cont.…..
 Self-Confidence: Being one of the essential communication skills,
confidence enhances the worthiness of the message being delivered.
 Respectfulness: Delivering a message with courtesy and respecting
the values, believes, opinions and ideas of the receiver is the essence
of effective communication.
 Non-Verbal Communication:To connect with the receiver in a
better way, the sender must involve the non-verbal means
communication too.These include gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, postures, etc.
 Selection of the Right Medium: Choice of the correct medium for
communication is also a skill. It is necessary to select an appropriate
medium according to the situation, priority of the message, the
receiver’s point of view, etc.
 Providing Feedback: Effective communication is always a two-way
process.A person must take as well as give feedback to bring forward
the other person’s perspective too.
Using effective communication in
complex situations
 Handling disgruntled clients is always a challenge, but
there is a step-by-step process that works in almost every
case.
 Once you know what to do and say, and how to say it,
you should be able to save the day and maybe even
improve the relationship.
Step 1: Listen
 It may be tempting to react immediately, especially if you
feel the client is being rude or unreasonable, but you
must resist. Remember, they are unhappy with the quality
of the service they’ve received, not with you, so don’t
take it personally.
 Stay cool, invite them to go over what happened and hear
them out without interrupting them.You need to
understand the problem fully - from the client’s point of
view - before attempting to solve it.
Step 2: Restate their concerns

 When they’ve finished talking, summarize what you
have heard: what you believe had upset them.
 You need to be sure you will be addressing the right
issue, so ask any questions to further clarify their
complaint.
 Restating their concerns back to them also shows
you were listening, which can help lower the tension.
 Talk slowly and calmly and use a low tone of voice.
Step 3: Empathise and apologies

 Whether the client's complaint is justified or not,
show them you understand their concerns and why
they are unhappy.
 You could say: 'I understand why you're upset.
 I'm very sorry about what happened.
 Let’s see what we can do to make things right.'
Step 4: Offer a solution

 If you know how to resolve the complaint and the
decision is within your remit, tell the client how you'd
like to correct the situation.
 If you are not sure, or if they don't like what you are
proposing, ask them what they feel should happen.
 If you don't have the authority to sanction the
proposed solution, acknowledge it and advise them
that you will need to refer it to your superiors.
Step 5: Follow through and follow-up

 Now explain every step you're going to take to fix
the problem, then follow through on your promise.
 Follow up with your client over the next few days to
check they are happy with the resolution and there is
no lingering frustration.
Tips on managing difficult situations

 Recognize that it is human to have feelings and
emotions
 Do not lose your temper; raise your voice; get angry,
sarcastic or provocative; or attempt to humiliate the
aggressor
 Take a deep breath, relax, and remain calm, neutral
and respectful
 Do not react and start disagreeing: pause and think
before acting
Cont.……
 Say “No” to unreasonable demands, but be prepared
to manage any adverse reaction
 Do not tell the person that you know how they feel
but do try to see the situation from their perspective
 Show warmth and empathy
 Do not let a bad experience with one person affect
your whole day/shift or your family life – keep a sense
of perspective and a professional attitude.
What is self disclosure?

Self-Disclosure
 Self-disclosure is the process of passing on information
about yourself to someone else – whether you intend
to or not! The details can range from the superficial,
such as your favorite food orTV show, to deeply
personal information, such as religious beliefs, and big
turning points in your private life.
 Through self-disclosure, two individuals get to know
one another.
 Self-disclosure is considered a key aspect of developing
closeness and intimacy with others, including friends,
romantic partners, and family members
Cont.….
 There are two types of self-disclosure: verbal and
nonverbal.
 We self-disclose verbally, for example, when we tell
others about our thoughts, feelings, preferences,
ambitions, hopes, and fears.
 And we disclose nonverbally through our body
language, clothes, tattoos, jewelry, and any other clues
we might give about our personalities and lives.
Factors Influencing Self-Disclosure

 1. Culture – different cultures have different views on
self-disclosure, and the topics you disclose about.
 2.Gender – the male and female psyche are inherently
different ex. women tend to disclose more than
men.
 3.The Listener – the no. of listeners (generally, the
more listeners, the less willing to self-disclose)
 4.Topic – certain topics are more “taboo” than others
 5. Channel of Communication
Role of self-disclosure in
psychological health and its use
in interpersonal conflicts
Group Discussion
(UNIT V)
GENDER & BEHAVIOR

Ashfaq Ahmad Sahil
Lecturer INS (KMU)
Objectives
• Demonstrate understanding about
stereotypes attached to gender
differences.
• Discuss impacts of adhering to traditional
gender roles on behavior.
• Discuss changing gender roles.
Definition of Gender and Stereotypes

Gender : Attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that
a given culture associates with a person’s
biological sex
Stereotypes : Belief about social group in terms
of the traits or characteristics that they are
believed to share, stereotype are cognitive
framework that influence the processing of social
information..
Gender Stereotype
• Gender stereotype is beliefs about the personal
attributes of females and males.
• Personal attributes basically means traits that
make up your personality, which define who you
are as a person.
• For example these could be personal attributes to

describe someone: outgoing, extrovert, open.
Type of Gender Stereotypes

• Female stereotype- The stereotype begin since a baby-
If baby was girl their tendency are more to girlish thing like
wear pink clothes, toys like a Barbie doll.
• Parents are the most contributive factor for this
stereotyping.
• Some example of stereotype about woman:
• Women are not as strong as men
• Women are supposed to have "clean jobs" such as
secretaries, teachers, and librarians
• Women are nurses, not doctors
• Woman are saying more gentle and kind heart person.
Type of Gender Stereotypes

• Male stereotype- . From the beginning, since they were
small boys are taught to be tough, to be protective, and to
defend themselves.
• Their outfits usually in blue color which symbolic to a men
• Their toys were like trucks,car,robot, a tough game.
• Mostly boys were aggressive in their playing than girls.
• Some example of stereotype:
• Men do not do housework and they are not responsible
for taking care of children
• Men do "dirty jobs" such as construction and mechanics;
• They are not secretaries, teachers, or cosmetologists
• Men do not cook, sew, or do crafts
Cont.……
• Wrongful gender stereotyping is a frequent cause
of discrimination against women and a
contributing factor in violations of a vast array of
rights such as the right to health, adequate
standard of living, education, marriage and family
relations, work, freedom of expression, freedom
of movement, political participation and
representation, effective remedy, and freedom
from gender-based violence.
Gender Roles
• “The degree to which a person adopts the gender-specific
behaviors ascribed by his or her culture”
• “Gender roles can be define as the behavior and attitude

expected of male and female members of the society
by that society”
• Men have greater body mass and strength and are better
equipped for hunting, warfare, and land clearing.
• Women do tasks that are compatible with pregnancy ,

breast feeding, and childcare.
Gender roles can be divided into three main

categories for analytical purposes
• Productive role
• Work done in the production of good sand services for
income or subsistence ( e.g. employment and self-
employment).
• Reproductive role
• Work that is done to care for the house hold and it
members such as child bearing, childcare, cooking,
washing, cleaning, water and fuel collection.
• Community role
• Refers to work done collectively by community members
such as the organization of social or religious events;
participation in community committees; and involvement
in local political activities.
Impacts of traditional gender roles on

behaviour
• “It is a lifelong process whereby people learn the
values, attitudes, motivations, and behavior
considered appropriate to each sex by their culture,”
• Gender role socialization takes place from earliest

childhood through adolescence and throughout all social
interactions in which we participate
• At an early age, children develop stereotypical

conceptions of both genders, and begin to use these
conceptions to organize their knowledge and behavior
Where Do
Gender Role
socialization
Come
From?
Gender role Socialization

• Family
• Education
• Peer Group
• Media
• Social interaction
Changing Gender Roles

• A dramatic transformation has taken place,
changing men and women’s lives, creating a
more balanced view of roles and responsibilities
that generations will continue to sculpt.
• The change in gender roles today is significantly
different to how gender roles past were
perceived.
• Our roles are considered as much more of an
equal balance, sharing responsibilities and
expectations.
THE GENDER ROLES TODAY

• EMPLOYMENT: Most couples will now have a full-time
job and will share financial responsibilities for their home.
In the past, a full-time job and financial responsibility were
expected in the role for men. Now that couples can both
work, there will be less pressure on finances.
• THE HOME: Both men and women now equally share

responsibilities in caring for their home. Gender roles past
would have expected the woman to carry out the daily
household chores, the cooking and the cleaning, whereas
now the jobs at home are very much shared.
Cont.…..
• CHILDCARE: The pressures of supporting a family and
perhaps paying for childcare has changed the role for
women, from the one most associated with the past, a full-
time stay at home mother. Now most women work full-
time or at least part-time, so that they can contribute
towards the family’s finances.
• ROLE REVERSAL: In some families we are seeing a

complete role reversal from the past where the woman is
going out to work full-time and the man stays at home to
look after the children and carry out the household
chores.
(UNIT VI)
ADULT
DEVELOPMENT
ASHFAQ AHMAD SAHIL
LECTURER INS (KMU)
OBJECTIVES
 Discuss Adult developmental transitions in
martial and intimate relationship.
 Discuss age roles and social clocks and its
influences on behavior.
 Discuss issues in marriage, leading to
divorce.
 Discuss adjustment to divorce and its impact
on individual and family behavior.
DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
 The pattern of movement or change that
begins at conception and continues through
the human life span.
WHY STUDY LIFE-SPAN

DEVELOPMENT?
 You can gain insight to your own life as a
child, adolescent, and young adult.
 You will learn about life through the adult
years—middle age, and old age.
 You may be a parent or a teacher some day.
 Life-span development is linked with many
different areas of psychology.
THE THREE GOALS OF

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
 Maintenance
 Growth
 Regulation
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Involve changes in the individual’s physical
nature such as:
 Height and weight gains
 The development of the brain
 Changes in motor skills
COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Involve changes in the individual’s thought,
intelligence, and language such as:
 Watching a mobile swing above a crib
 Creating a two-word sentence
 Memorizing a poem
 Imagining being a movie star
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL PROCESSES
Involve changes in the individual’s relationships
with other people, changes in emotions, and
changes in personality such as:
 An infant smiling from her mother’s touch
A young boy hitting a playmate
A girl’s joy at her senior prom
The affection of an elderly couple
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
 The prenatal period
 Infancy
 Early childhood
 Middle and late childhood
 Adolescence
 Early adulthood
 Middle adulthood
 Late adulthood
THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Intimacy versus Isolation (Erik Erikson)
Intimacy: the capacity to engage in a
supportive, affectionate relationship without
losing one’s own sense of self
Isolation: results from relationships that are

inadequate, lack of self-disclosure, and
unresolved identity crises
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
AND MATE SELECTION
 Focus on survival value
 Mating a selective process to ensure survival of
the species
 Cross-cultural studies suggest
• Men prefer physically attractive, younger
women
• Men lower their standards on the basis of
availability
• Women prefer men whose socio-economic
status is higher than their own, who offer
earning potential and stability
SINGLEHOOD
 Many adults single by preference
 Associated with greater autonomy and capacity
for personal growth
 Many adults participate in intimate
relationships that do not involve cohabiting
or marriage—”partnered”
 Close relationships with families of origin
likely to be a source of support
 Close friends play prominent role in social
networks
PARENTHOOD
THE DESIRE TO BECOME A PARENT
 9 out of 10 women aged 18 to 34 either are or
expect to become a parent
 More men than women desire to be parents
 Expectant fathers become emotionally attached

to their unborn children
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
 Donald Super’s Model
 Several stages of career development
 Growth stage—learn about one’s abilities
 Exploratory stage—decide on job or career
 Establishment stage—early steps on the career
ladder
 Maintenance stage—ends at retirement but
may need to learn new skills on the job
INTIMACY
 Intimacy involves the feeling of being in a close,
personal association and belonging together.
 It is a familiar and very close
affective connection with another as a result of a
bond that is formed through knowledge and
experience of the other.
 Genuine intimacy in human relationships requires
 dialogue,
 transparency,
 vulnerability, and
 reciprocity.
INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP
 An intimate relationship is an
interpersonal relationship that involves physical
or emotional intimacy.
 Although an intimate relationship is commonly a
sexual relationship, it may also be a non-
sexual relationship involving family, friends, or
acquaintances
CONT……
 Emotional intimacy involves feelings
of liking or loving one or more people, and may result in
physical intimacy.
 Physical intimacy is characterized by romantic
love, sexual activity, or other passionate attachment.
 These relationships play a central role in the overall
human experience.
 Humans have a general desire to belong and to love,
which is usually satisfied within an intimate relationship.
 Such relationships allow a social network for people to
form strong emotional attachments
SOCIAL CLOCK THEORY

 Social psychologist Bernice Neugarten identified the
social clock theory in the 1965 as shared expectations of
age-appropriate behavior.
 Social clock is a concept that explores the timetable
determined by a culture or social structure, that specifies
a proper time for certain events, like marriage,
graduation, employment or social status.
 Members of society are told explicitly and implicitly when
it’s “appropriate” to start their first job, get married, have
a baby, purchase a home, and retire.
 Social clock examples can include virtually anything that
people commonly do throughout their lives.
CONT.…….
 A simple way to understand why people would follow a
social clock is the idea of fitting in.
 Adults who follow a social clock can easily relate
themselves to others, enhancing their understanding of
their place in society.
 Like other social rules that members of society use, a
social clock can help individuals know when it’s
appropriate to perform certain life events.
 Cultural norms can vary based on social classes,
genders, religions, and even occupations.
 Adhering to or diverging from the social clock can be a
major source of adult personality change, according to
Laura Berk in “Developing Through the Lifespan.”
ISSUES IN MARRIAGE, LEADING

TO DIVORCE
All marriages are impacted by problems.
Couples who are able to work together in
resolving conflict are more likely to be able
to save their marriage.
Couples who lack the proper conflict
resolution skills may find themselves in
divorce court for problems that could have
easily been solved.
1. MONEY PROBLEMS
Most couples argue over bills, debt,
spending, and other financial issues.
How you decide to deal with money
problems in your marriage will determine
whether those problems has a negative or
positive effect on your marriage.
2. CHILDREN
Discipline, diet, and other parenting issues
can be sources of disagreement between
couples.
A child is the number one stressor in a
marriage and can accentuate differences in
beliefs on issues like how to discipline, who
is responsible for most of the child care or
what educational options to choose.
3. SEX
Frequency, quantity, quality, and infidelity are
all common sources of stress and
disharmony in a marriage.
 Cheating on a spouse destroys trust.
Sex can be a HUGE issue when it comes to
undoing the vows you took.
4. TIME APART
Time apart and a lack of quality time
together causes couples to become out
of sync with each other.
Having shared interests and activities
you participate in on a regular basis
helps couples stay connected.
5. HOUSEHOLD
RESPONSIBILITIES
 Many couples argue over equitable
distribution of household work, and
how to do it.
 Instead of sitting down and dividing
household chores fairly they quibble
over who did or didn’t do what.
6. FRIENDS
Not all friends are helpful to
relationships some of them are toxic.
Be sure you know the difference
between a friend who will enhance
your relationship and one who will
break it down.
7. IRRITATING HABITS
Many people are married to someone
who has one or more habits they find
undesirable.
8. FAMILY
In-laws, siblings, children and step-
children can all create stress within a
marriage.
When coping with negative issues
because of family step gently.
9. EXPECTATIONS
We all go into marriage with certain
expectations.
Most of the time, marriage is the
opposite of what we expected.
Unmet expectations are a major
source of conflict in marriages.
10. PERSONALITY CONFLICTS

 There are personality traits that can doom a
marriage to failure.
 Are you a conflict avoider?
 Each of the above is a very common problem

dealt with in a marriage. Although they are
problems, they can also be opportunities for
growth, learning, and accord.
 Whether these issues remain problems causing
stress in your marriage or become an
opportunity for growth is up to you.
DIVORCE
 A divorce is a formal ending of a
marriage.
 It's more permanent than a separation
and involves a legal process.
 If you get a divorce, that means the
marriage is officially over.
DIVORCE AFFECTS
EMOTIONALLY AND PHYSICALLY
Unhappiness
Depression
Health problems
False intimacy
Substance abuse
DIVORCE AFFECTS ON SOCIAL LIFE
Loneliness
Lost social network
Fading relationships with co-workers.
Distancing of close friendships
Decreased contact with children
EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN
Poor Performance in Academics

Loss of Interest in Social Activity
Difficulty Adapting to Change
Emotionally Sensitive
Feelings of Guilt
Increase in Health Problems
Loss of Faith in Marriage and Family Unit
ADJUSTMENT TO DIVORCE
 Divorce is the legal termination of a marriage, and
slightly less than half of all first marriage send in
divorce in the U.S.
 Because divorce is replete with losses resulting from
the multiple changes in family life.
 Adjustment to divorce can be challenging and
occurs in both public and private domains.
 A number of factors affect adjustment, including
individual characteristics like age and employment
and relational characteristics such as connections
with others.
COPING WITH DIVORCE
Exercise often
Eat a healthy diet
See friends often
Keep a journal
See a therapist
STRATEGIES FOR HELPING

KIDS ADJUST TO A DIVORCE
 Explain the divorce in a simple straightforward way
 Reassure your children that they will always have
both parents' love and explain how things will work
 Talk about the emotions that kids naturally feel
under these circumstances
 Reassure your kids that the divorce is not their fault
 Avoid talking badly about the other parent or
blaming the individual, even if you are angry
CONT.…….
 It can be very helpful if you work with
a parenting expert, or a family therapist who has
experience with divorce and can give you guidance
on how to handle tough situations that arise.
 Be aware that when a family is going through a
divorce, children can act up, withdraw or regress.
“EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE”
 Emotional intelligence is the ability to

understand and manage emotions
effectively.
 If you are emotionally intelligent, you can
handle interpersonal relationships
empathetically, and a high emotional
intelligence can help you better achieve
your professional goals.
IN INTIMATE INTERPERSONAL SITUATIONS
 Emotional intelligence (EQ) is the secret of lasting

intimate relationships, largely because it makes us
extremely aware of the changes—large and small—
that are constantly occurring in ourselves and
others.
 We have the potential to attain the kind of love we
all dream of—deep intimacy, mutual kindness, real
commitment, soulful caring.
 Acceptance to experience emotions that could harm
a relationship
IN WORK SITUATIONS
Psychologist Daniel Goleman is known for developing
the components of emotional intelligence at work in
the 1990s.
 Self-awareness
 Self-regulation
 Empathy
 Social skills
(UNIT VII)
HEALTH
PSYCHOLOGY
ASHFAQ AHMAD SAHIL
LECTURER INS (KMU)
OBJECTIVES
 Identify determinants of people’s health
related behavior.
 Develop understanding about the role of
locus of control and attribution styles in
serving as protective measures for
psychological health.
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
Health psychology can be defined as the
application of psychological knowledge and
methods to the study, prevention, and
management of physical diseases and
disorders.
Emotional adaptation and mental health are
considered in health psychology only to the
extent that they influence—or are influenced
by—physical health and illness (Schwarzer
and Gutiérrez 2000).
CONT.……..
 Health psychology measurement is
undertaken in order to understand
behavioral and psychological processes in
health, illness, and health care.
 Measures are used to address three main
theoretically, based questions concerning:
CONT.……
(i)The assessment of psychological and behavioral
guides of the status or amount of health, illness, or
health care;
(ii)The assessment or evaluation of the psychological
and behavioral consequences of health, illness, or
health care;
(iii)The assessment of psychological and behavioral
factors as predictors or explanations of health, illness,
or health care.
GOALS OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
There are ten major goals of health

psychology:
Understanding behavioral and contextual
factors for health and illness
Preventing illness
Investigating the effects of disease
Providing critical analyses of health policies
Hospice care and grief counseling for
terminal patients
CONT.……
Conducting research on prevention of and
intervention in health problems
Improving doctor-patient communication
Improving adherence to medical advice
Finding treatments to manage pain.
Teaching coping skills
THE DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
RELATED BEHAVIOUR
 Any behaviour that affects a person's health status,
either positively or negatively, is considered to be a
health-related behaviour.
 Daily habits involving diet, exercise, safety practices
and substance use are not only related to the
prevention of disease, but also affect the
management of chronic illness and degree of
disability (Fries, 2002).
 It is difficult to imagine any activity or behaviour that
does not affect our health in some way, either
directly or indirectly.
ARTICLE DISCUSSION
The determinants of
health related behavior
LOCUS OF CONTROL
 Locus of control is an individual’s belief
system regarding the causes of his or her
experiences and the factors to which that
person attributes success or failure.
 This concept is usually divided into two
categories: internal and external.
LOCUS OF CONTROL
INTERNAL
 If a person has an internal locus of control, that person attributes
success to his or her own efforts and abilities.
 A person who expects to succeed will be more motivated and
more likely to learn.
 Locus of control is often viewed as an inborn
personality component.
 However, there is also evidence that it is shaped
by childhood experiences—including children’s interactions with
their parents.
 Children who were raised by parents who encouraged their
independence and helped them to learn the connection between
actions and their consequences tended to have a more well
developed internal locus of control.
LOCUS OF CONTROL
EXTERNAL
 A person with an external locus of control,
who attributes his or her success to luck or
fate, will be less likely to make the effort
needed to learn.
People with an external locus of control are
also more likely to experience anxiety since
they believe that they are not in control of
their lives.
EXAMPLE
For example, let's say you're a person with an internal locus of
control and you get a promotion at work or achieve some other
type of success. You will probably attribute that positive end result
to the work you put in. In other words, your success was a direct
result of your hard work.
If, on the other hand, you have an external locus of control, you
might attribute that promotion or success to external or
environmental factors, such as luck, fate, timing, other people or
some type of divine intervention.
Let's use the same example and say that you were denied a
promotion. If your locus of control is internal, you would find a way
to blame yourself for the perceived failure. If your locus of control
is external, it would be easy, even natural, to blame outside
sources beyond your control.
WHAT IS AN ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE?
 Your attributional style is the way you explain a negative

event to yourself.
 The way you think about why a bad thing has happened
to you.
 The conclusions you draw from a negative event: the
meaning you attribute to it.
 For example, say you fail a maths test at school. If you
have a positive attributional style you might say
something like: “This was an unusually hard test. I didn’t
study well for this one. I was unusually tired on the day.
I’ll just make sure that next time I’ll study a bit more and
get a better night’s sleep before the test.”
CONT.……
 But if you have a negative attributional style, you’re
more likely to say something like: “I’m bad at maths.
This result shows what a bad student I am. Nothing
is going to change. And it means I’m bad at other
hard subjects as well. I’m not going to do well at
school.”
INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL

 Attribution theory proposes that the attributions
people make about events and behavior can be
classed as either internal or external.
 In an Internal, or dispositional, Attribution,
people infer that an event or a person’s
behavior is due to personal factors such as
traits, abilities, or feelings.
 In an External, or situational, Attribution,
people infer that a person’s behavior is due to
situational factors.
EXAMPLE
Maria’s car breaks down on the freeway.
If she believes the breakdown happened
because of her ignorance about cars, she is
making an internal attribution.
If she believes that the breakdown happened
because her car is old, she is making an
external attribution.
STABLE VS. UNSTABLE

Researchers also distinguish between stable
and unstable attributions.
When people make a Stable Attribution,
they infer that an event or behavior is due to
stable, unchanging factors.
When making an Unstable Attribution, they
infer that an event or behavior is due to
unstable, temporary factors.
EXAMPLE
Farhan gets a D grade on his psychology
term paper.
If he attributes the grade to the fact that he
always has bad luck, he is making a stable
attribution.
If he attributes the grade to the fact that he
didn’t have much time to study that week, he
is making an unstable attribution.
GLOBAL VS. SPECIFIC

 Global attributions are those that we feel apply
broadly, whereas specific attributions are those causes
that we see as more unique to particular events.
 For example: “This just shows how bad I am at exams. I
am never going to do well at school.” You have drawn
conclusions from one test and applied them
to all subjects and to your whole school career. You
have globalized the negative result.
 A more positive response (Specific) to this negative
event would be to “localize” it as much as possible: “I
failed this test, because this test was hard.”
FINALLY
 If you have a positive attributional style,
you’re more likely to use active problem
solving techniques to change them.
If you have a positive attributional style,
you’re more likely to reframe the negative
event in more helpful ways.
(UNIT VIII)
STRESS & ITS EFFECTS
ASHFAQ AHMAD
SAHIL
LECTURER INS (KMU)
Objectives
 Define stress and adaptation.
 Identify types of stress.
 Identify major sources of psychological
stress.
 Explain effects of stress on the body.
 Discuss different kind of indicators of
stress.
 Describe General adaptation syndrome
(GAS)
 Identify factors influencing stress
intolerance.
 Develop understanding about achieving
DEFINITION
 Stress is a state of emotional strain or
pressure, whether it is physical or
psychological. (Atkison , Berne &
Woodworth)
 Stress is the body's reaction to any
change that requires an adjustment or
response.
 The body reacts to these changes with
physical, mental, and emotional
responses.
Types of Stress
DISTRESS
 Stress due to an excess of adaptive demands
placed upon us. The demands are so great
that they lead to bodily and mental damage.
e.g.: unexpected death of a loved one.
EUSTRESS
 Unlike bad stress, or distress, eustress can
help with motivation, focus, energy, and
performance.. e.g.: praise from a superior for
hardworking.
Adaptation
 The process by which human system
modifies itself to follow the environment.
 It is a change that results from response
to stress
Sources of stress
 There are many sources of stress, these
are broadly classified as:
 Internal stressors: they originate
within a person e.g.: cancer, feeling of
depression.
 External stressors: it originates
outside the individual e.g.: moving to
another city, death in a family.
Cont.……….
 Developmental stressors: It occurs
at predictable times throughout an
individual„s life. e.g.: child- beginning of
school.
 Situational stressors: They are
unpredictable and occur at any time
during life. It may be positive or negative.
e.g.: death of family member, marriage/
divorce.
Effects of Stress on the Body

 Physical - affects physiologic
homeostasis
 Emotional - affects feeling towards self
 Intellectual - influences perception and
problem solving abilities
 Social – can alter relationships with
others
 Spiritual - affects one‟s beliefs and
values
INDICATORS OF STRESS
 Physiological
 Psychological
 Cognitive
 Verbal-Motor
Physiological Indicators
 Dilated pupils
 Diaphoresis
 Tachycardia
 Tachypnea
 Hypertension
 Increased blood flow to the muscles
Cont.….
 Increased blood clotting
 Bronchodilation
 Skin pallor
 Water retention, Sodium retention
 Oliguria
 Dry mouth, decrease peristalsis
 Hyperglycemia
Psychological indicators
 Anxiety
 Fear
 Anger
 Depression
Cognitive Indicators
 Problem solving
 Prayer
 Self control,
 Suppression and fantasy
 Thinking responses of the individual
toward stress
Verbal / Motor Indicators

 Crying
 Verbal abuse
 Laughing
 Screaming
 Hitting and kicking
 Holding and touching
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

 GAS, is a term used to describe the
body's short-term and long-term
reactions to stress.
 It represents a three-stage reaction to
stress.
Alarm reaction (AR)
Stage of resistance (SR)
Stage of exhaustion (SE)
Stage 1: Alarm Reaction (AR)

 The alarm reaction, is the immediate
reaction to a stressor.
 In the initial phase of stress, humans
exhibit a "fight or flight" response, which
prepares the body for physical activity.
Stage 2: Stage of Resistance

(SR)
 Stage 2 might also be named the stage
of adaptation, instead of the stage of
resistance.
 The body has reacted to the stressor
and adjusted in a way that begins to
allow the body to return to homeostasis.
 If a stressful condition persists, your
body adapts by a continued effort in
resistance and remains in a state of
arousal.
Stage 3: Stage of Exhaustion

(SE)
 In the exhaustion phase, the physical and
psychological energy used to fight a stressor
has been depleted.
 Short-term stress would probably not deplete
all of a person's energy reserves, but chronic
stressors, such as the struggle to get straight
as, financial worries, or fights with family and
friends may create continuous states of alarm
and resistance.
 When a person no longer has the adaptation
energy stores for fighting a distressor, serious
illness may result.
Factors influencing stress intolerance

 One‟s knowledge and preparedness
 Optimism
 Hardiness
 Sensation Seeking
 Social support
One‟s knowledge &
preparedness
 Stress can be heightened when one is
not aware of what to expect in the
stressful situation.
 It is easier to cope when you have
knowledge about stress
Optimistic
 Hopefulness & confidence about the
future or success.
 People who tend to be optimistic in all
spheres of life tend to cope better with
stress than those who are pessimistic.
 Concentrate on the positive, are more
willing to get social support
Hardiness
 Hardiness is a personality syndrome
marked by control, challenge, and
commitment that is relatively linked to
strong stress resistance.
Sensation seeking
 Thrill seeking
 Excitement seeking
 Tendency to pursue new and different
situations, feelings and experiences.
 People who are high in sensation tend
to enjoy challenges.
 Usually engage in stressful activities and
take it as a normal way of life.
Social support:
 Its different support and aids provided
by members of your social network.
 It is associated with mental health.
 Serves as a protective shield for the
individual which minimizes the negative
impact of the stressor.
STRESS MANAGMENT
Stress Relief Strategies:
 Body relaxation exercises - breathing
techniques - guided imagery
 Physical exercise -yoga -work out
routine
 Counseling -Talk therapy -Life coaching
 Changing perceptions and expectations
Cont.……
 Break jobs/tasks into manageable parts

 Set reasonable/realistic goals
 Avoid procrastination
 Set boundaries
 Don‟t compromise your values/beliefs
 Schedule “me” time
Healthier ways to cope with stress: (4 A‟s )

 Avoid unnecessary stress
 Alter the situation
 Accept the things you can‟t change
 Adapt to the stressor
Strategies for Developing Self-

Control
A Can-Do Attitude
 Evidence shows that people function better and
are more able to deal with stress when they feel
that they are in control.
 Believe that things are under your control and
they probably will be.
Goal Setting
 Goals basically guide our choices.
 The more specific the goal, the better able people
are to reach it.
 Effective goal pursuits follow the SMART criteria:
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and
Time-based.
Cont.……
Self–Monitor
 Self-monitoring is a form of feedback.
 Monitoring progress toward goal attainment helps one
to concentrate on goal-relevant activities.
 Self-monitoring helps us to become experts on our
behaviors.
Motivation
 The more you want the goal, the more likely you are
willing to make the efforts and sacrifices required to
achieve it.
 The strength of people‟s commitment to something
depends on its value to them and the chance that the
value will, in fact, occur.
 This means that there will be no motivation to pursue
Cont.……
Confidence
 An important component of motivation is the
person‟s self-perceived ability to achieve it.
 People won‟t build up much motivation for
change if they believe it is impossible for
them.
Willpower
 Willpower represents strength or
psychological energy that one uses to resist
other temptations in order to work toward
one‟s goal.
Cont.…….
Self-Control as a Pattern of Behavior
 Self-control refers to your ability to manage your
behavior in order to achieve goals, improve positive
outcomes, and avoid negative consequences
 While the physical independence of today and
tomorrow is real enough, the fact remains that actions
today affect actions tomorrow.
 Psychologist Howard Rachlin argues that self-control
comes from choosing “patterns” of behavior over time
rather than individual “acts.”
 The decision to stop smoking is, in effect, a decision
to begin a pattern of behavior.
(UNIT IX)
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
AND BEHAVIOUR
Ashfaq Ahmad Sahil
Lecturer INS (KMU)
Objectives
• Understand theories of personality and
behaviour.
• Discuss the relevance of these theories to
the development of healthy personality.
• Identify various ways of assessing
personality.
Definition of Personality?
Personality refers to the relatively enduring
characteristics that differentiate one person from
another and that lead people to act in a
consistent and predictable manner, both in
different situations and over extended periods of
time.
Personality is defined as: the enduring or lasting
patterns of behavior and thought (across time
and situation).
Personality
Four Major Perspectives on Personality
Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivations
Trait - specific dimensions of personality
Humanistic - inner capacity for growth
Social-Cognitive - influence of environment
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

What is the structure and development of personality,
according to Sigmund Freud and his successors
(i.e.,psychoanalysts)?
 According to psychoanalysts, much of behavior is caused
by parts of personality which are found in the unconscious
and of which we are unaware.
 Freud‟s 3 levels of awareness/consciousness:
• The conscious mind;
• The preconscious mind; and
• The unconscious mind.
Psychoanalysis:
Freud‟s Theory of Personality
Three levels of consciousness:
Conscious mind: mind things we are focusing
on.

Preconscious mind: mind things are not
currently aware of but which we could focus on.

Unconscious mind: mind that which we are
unaware of.
Psychoanalysis:
Freud‟s theory suggest that personality is composed of
the id, the ego, and the superego.
• id: id the unorganized, inborn part of personality
whose purpose is to immediately reduce tensions
relating to hunger, sex, aggression, and other
primitive impulses.
• ego: ego restrains instinctual energy in order to
maintain the safety of the individual and to help the
person to be a member of society.
• superego: superego the rights and wrongs of society
and consists of the conscience and the ego-ideal.
Freud: superego, id, and ego

According to Freud, an individual‟s
feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are the
result of the interaction of the id, the
superego, and the ego.

The id, the ego, and the superego are continually
in conflict with one another.
This conflict generates anxiety.
If the ego did not effectively handle the resulting
anxiety, people would be so overwhelmed with
anxiety that they would not be able to carry on
with the tasks of everyday living.
The ego tries to control anxiety (i.e., to reduce
anxiety) through the use of ego defense
mechanisms.
Ego Defense Mechanisms

• Definition: A defense mechanism is a
psychology tendency that the ego uses to help
prevent people from becoming overwhelmed by
any conflict (and resulting anxiety) among the id,
the ego, and the superego.
• Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious
level.
• We are not aware of them during the time that we
are actually using them.
• However, we may later become aware of their
previous operation and use
Freud‟s Theory: Defense Mechanisms

Repression: Repression pushing unacceptable and
anxiety- producing thoughts into the unconscious;
involves intentional forgetting but not consciously
done; repressed material can be memories or
unacceptable impulses.
• A rape victim cannot recall the details of the attack.
Regression: Regression acting in ways
characteristic of earlier life stages/earlier stage of
personality.
• A young adult, anxious on a trip to his parents/ home,
sits in the corner reading comic books, as he often
did in grade school.

Reaction formation: replacing an anxiety-producing
formation feeling with its exact opposite, typically going
overboard; repressed thoughts appear as mirror
opposites.
• A man who is anxious about his interest in gay men
begins dating women several times a week.
 Rationalization: Rationalization creating false but
believable excuses to justify inappropriate behavior; real
motive for behavior is not accepted by ego.
• A student cheats on an exam, explaining that cheating is
genuine on an unfair examination.

Denial: Denial claiming and believing that something
which is actually true is false.
• A person disbelieves that she is age, asserting that “I am
not getting older.”
Displacement: Displacement redirecting emotional
feelings (e.g., anger) to a substitute target; involves
directing unacceptable impulses onto a less threatening
object/person.
• A husband, angry at the way his boss treated him,
screams at his children.
• Instead of telling your professor what you really think of
her, you tailgate and harass a slow driver on your way
home from school.

Projection: Projection attributing one‟s own
unacceptable feelings or beliefs to others;
perceiving the external world in terms of one‟s
own personal conflicts.
• A husband who has a hostile nature might
attribute this hostility to his wife and say she has
an anger management problem.
Sublimation: Sublimation substitute socially
acceptable behavior for unacceptable impulses.
• Playing video games instead of getting in a fight.
Freud:Stages of Personality Development

Freud‟s psychoanalytic theory of personality
suggests that personality develops through a
series of stages, each of which is associated with
a major stages biological function.
More specifically, Freud theorized that as people

age, they pass through several systematic stages
of psychosexual development in their personality.
Psychosexual Stages of Development

• The stages of personality development involve critical
events that occur in every child‟s life.
• At each level, there is a conflict between pleasure and
reality.
• The resolution of this conflict determines personality.
• At any stage, “a fixation” can occur.
• If needs are either under-gratified or over-gratified, we
become fixated at a particular stage.
• Each stage also involves an erogenous zone.
• Parts of the body that involve sexual pleasure.
Psychosexual Stages
• Oral (0-18 mos) - centered on the mouth
• Anal (18-36 mos) - focus on bowel/bladder
elimination.
• Phallic (3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/“Oedipus
Complex” (Identification & Gender Identity)
• Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormant
• Genital (puberty on) - sexual feelings toward
others
(1)Oral stage of development

Time period: Birth to 18 months:
Erogenous zone is mouth. mouth
Gratification through sucking and swallowing.
Oral fixation has two possible outcomes.
Oral receptive personality:
• Preoccupied with eating/drinking.
• Reduce tension through oral activity, like eating,
drinking, smoking, biting nails
Oral aggressive personality:
• Hostile and verbally abusive to others.
(2) Anal stage of development

Time period: 1 1/2 to 3 years of age.
Erogenous zone is the anus.
Conflict surrounds toilet training.
Anal fixation has two possible outcomes.
Anal retentive personality: Stingy, compulsive
orderliness, stubborn, perfectionistic.
Anal expulsive personality: Lack of self
control, messy, careless.
(3) Phallic stage of development

Time period: 3 to 6 years.
Erogenous zone is the genitals: self-stimulation of the
genitals produces pleasure.
At age 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, children
experience the Oedipal conflict (boys)/the Electra conflict
(girls)--a process through which they learn to identify with
the same gender parent by acting as much like that
parent as possible.
Oedipus complex (boys) vs Electra complex (girls)
Child is sexually attracted to the other sex parent and
wishes to replace the same sex parent.
(4) Latency Period:

During the latency period, little girls and little
boys try to socialize only with members of their
own gender.
Freud posits that children do this so as to help
minimize the awareness of “sexuality.”
Thus, they continue the process of sexual
repression that began in the previous stage (for
those who successfully made it through the
Oedipal Complex/Electra Complex).
(5) Genital Stage:

When adolescence begin puberty, they enter the
5th stage of psychosexual development.
They develop secondary sexual characteristics
(e.g., pubic hair).
The onset of the physical sexual characteristics
“re-awakens” people sexual urges, and thus they
are no longer able to successfully repress their
sexual desires, impulses, and urges.
They begin searching for a marital mate, with
whom they can share sex and intimacy.
Erik Erikson (1902–1994)

Erik Erikson was a stage theorist who took Freud‟s
controversial theory of psychosexual development and
modified it as a psychosocial theory.
Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive
contributions to development by mastering attitudes,
ideas, and skills at each stage of development.
This mastery helps children grow into successful,
contributing members of society.
During each of Erikson‟s eight stages, there is a
psychological conflict that must be successfully overcome
in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted
adult.
Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial

Development
• Erik Erikson's developmental theory of the "Eight Stages
of Man" was unique and different in the sense that it
covered the entire lifespan rather than „childhood‟ and
„adolescent development‟.
• He believed that social environment combined with
biological maturation results in a set of "crises" that must
be resolved.
• The individual passes through the "sensitive period” and
crisis at different stages, which has to be resolved
successfully before a new crisis is presented.
• The results of the resolution, whether successful or not,
are passed on to the next crisis and provide the
foundation for its resolution.
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

(Birth to 12 months)
• The infant develops a sense of who and when to
trust.
• He learns when to protect oneself and be
cautious.
• Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their
baby‟s needs can engender feelings of anxiety,
fear, and mistrust.
• If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not
met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a
sense of mistrust for people in the world.
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

(1–3 years)
• The child develops a sense of independence and
is able to understand and recognize his
limitations.
• If independence is encouraged, he develops a
sense of autonomy.
• If the child is overly restricted, over-protected, or
criticized it may result into self-doubt and shame.
• Shame occurs when child is overly self-conscious
when negatively exposed.
Initiative vs. Guilt

(3–6 years)
• The child is able to tryout and explore various
things.
• Indulges in various activities, both motor and
intellectual.
• These children will develop self-confidence and
feel a sense of purpose.
• Guilt arises after doing the negative acts e.g.
aggression.
Industry vs. Inferiority

(6–12 years)
• Children begin to compare themselves with their
peers to see how they measure up.
• They either develop a sense of pride and
accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social
activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and
inadequate because they feel that they don‟t
measure up.
• If children do not learn to get along with others or
have negative experiences at home or with peers, an
inferiority complex might develop
into adolescence and adulthood.
Identity vs. Role Confusion

(12–18 years)
• Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?”
and “What do I want to do with my life?”
• They explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and
attempt to discover their “adult” selves.
• Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a
strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to
their beliefs and values and other people‟s perspectives.
• When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a
conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform
to their parents‟ ideas for the future, they may develop a
weak sense of self and experience role confusion.
• They will be unsure of their identity and confused about
the future.
Intimacy vs. Isolation

(20s through early 40s)
• Beginning in the early 20s and may extend to the 40s.
• After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence,
we are ready to share our life with others.
• However, if other stages have not been successfully
resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and
maintaining successful relationships with others.
• Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self
before we can develop successful intimate relationships.
• Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in
adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and
emotional isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation

(40s, to the mid-60s)
• Generativity involves finding your life‟s work and
contributing to the development of others through
activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising
children.
• During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing
to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring
for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive
work which contributes positively to society.
• Those who do not master this task may experience
stagnation and may have little connection with others and
little interest in productivity and self-improvement
Integrity vs. Despair

(From the mid-60s to the end of life)
• People in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel
either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure.
• People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a
sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives
with few regrets.
• However, people who are not successful at this stage may
feel as if their life has been wasted.
• They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and
“could have” been.
• They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness,
depression, and despair.
Humanistic Personality Theories

Maslow and Rogers
Rejected Freud‟s pessimistic view of personality.
Rejected Behaviorist‟s mechanistic view.
More optimistic/positive about human nature.
Humans are free and basically good.
Humans are inner-directed.
Everyone has the potential for healthy growth.
Given the right environmental conditions, we can
reach our full potential.
Characteristics of the self-actualized

person
Creative and open to new experiences.
Committed to a cause or a higher goal.
Trusting and caring of others, yet not
dependent.
Have the courage to act on their
convictions.
Trait Personality Theories

Information obtained from observation of
behavior and questionnaire responses from the
general population.
Trait approaches have tried to identify the most
basic and relatively enduring dimensions along
which people differ from one another--dimensions
known as traits.
How many trait dimensions are there?
How can we measure these trait dimensions?
Where do these trait dimensions originate?
Trait Personality Theories:Allport

Allport Most important personality traits are those
that reflect our values.
Allport suggested that there are 3 kinds of traits:
Cardinal: a single personality trait that directs most of
a cardinal person‟s activities (e.g., greed, lust,
kindness).
Central: a set of major characteristics that make up
the central core of a person‟s personality.
Secondary: less important personality traits that do
not affect behavior as much as central and cardinal
traits do.
Trait Personality Theories (cont):

• Recently personality theorists have begun to converge on
the view that there are 5 basic personality dimensions:
1: emotional stability versus neuroticism:
• Calm, secure, self-satisfied VS anxious, insecure, self-
pitying.
2: extraversion versus introversion:
• Sociable, fun-loving, affectionate VS retiring, sober,
reserved.
3: openness versus close-mindedness:
• Imaginative, independent VS practical, conforming.
Cont.……
4: agreeableness versus disagreeableness:
• Kind, trusting, helpful VS ruthless, suspicious,
uncooperative.
5: conscientiousness versus undependable:
• Organized, careful, disciplined VS disorganized,
careless, impulsive.
Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:

Social Learning Theory: Bandura
Emphasizes the role of learning in personality.
• Classical Conditioning.
• Operant Conditioning .
• Modeling.
Instead of studying what‟s going on inside the
person (traits), study what is going on outside the
person (environment).
How does the environment shape personality?
Cont.…….
 Bandura also emphasized the importance of
cognition in personality development.
People develop a sense of self-efficacy
Self-efficacy: Our beliefs about our ability to
achieve goals.
Individuals with higher self-efficacy accept
greater challenges. And try harder to meet
challenges.
Bandura also discusses the notion of Reciprocal
Determinism: The individual and the environment
continually influence one another.
Personality Assessment
Personality assessment involves the techniques
for systematically gathering information about a
person in order to understand and predict
behavior.
Goal of personality assessment: to obtain
reliable, assessment valid measures of individual
differences that will permit the accurate prediction
of behavior.
How do we measure “Personality”?

(1) Interview
Ask the person about themselves.
Obtain information that reveals personality.
(2) Behavioral assessment

Behavioral assessment is based on the
principles of learning theory.
Watch the individual‟s behavior in an actual or
simulated situation
Behavioral assessment employs direct
measurement of behavior to determine the
characteristics related to personality.
(3) Objective Test Assessment

 Objective personality tests (self-report
questionnaires) present the test taker with a
number of specific items to which she is asked to
respond, either on paper or on a computer
screen.
Self-report measures ask people about a sample
range of their behaviors.
These reports are used to infer the presence of
particular personality characteristics.
Cont.…….
Examples of objective personality measures:
• The MMPI (the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory).
• The 16 PF (the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire). The NEO-PI (the NEO Personality
Inventory).
The most commonly used self-report measure is the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-
2), designed to differentiate people with specific 2)
sorts of psychological difficulties from normal
individuals.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory (MMPI-2)
Mostwidely used personality instrument.
Used in clinical and employment settings.
MMPI-2 Has several different scales (multiphasic).
MMPI sample items:
• „I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting
(FALSE) = Depression.
• „I seem to hear things that other people can‟t hear‟
(TRUE) = Schizophrenia.
Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest
a problem: Extreme suspiciousness may indicate
paranoia.
(4) Projective Test Assessment

A projective personality test is one in which the
subject is given an ambiguous stimulus and asked to
respond spontaneously.
• pictures or inkblots.
• No clear answer.
The ambiguous stimulus allows test takers to project
their own needs, dreams, feelings into their response.
The observer‟s responses to the stimulus are then
used to infer information about the observer‟s
personality.
Cont.……..
• The 2 most frequently used projective tests are:
• The Rorschach: reactions to inkblots are
employed to Rorschach classify personality
types.
• The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): stories
about (TAT) ambiguous pictures are used to draw
inferences about the storyteller‟s personality.
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

(UNIT X)
COUNSELING
ASHFAQ AHMAD SAHIL
LECTURER INS (KMU)
Objectives
⚫ Define Counseling.
⚫ Identify that what issues does counseling addressed.
⚫ Describe roles of counseling psychologist.
⚫ Explain types and functions of counseling.
⚫ Describe major counseling perspectives.
⚫ Demonstrate understanding of the counseling process.
⚫ Demonstrate understanding of applying counseling
techniques in various scenarios.
What is Counseling?
⚫ Counseling is a face to face relationship between counselor
and client.
⚫ Definition:
⚫ Counseling psychology can be defined as a professional
psychology field that pays attention to the “emotional, social,
vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and
organizational concerns.
What Issues Does Counseling Address?

⚫ Addiction and abuse of alcohol and other drugs
⚫ Adjustment issues, including adjustment to college life
⚫ Anger management
⚫ Anxiety
⚫ Depression
⚫ Eating disorder
⚫ Relationship difficulties, including roommates, significant
others, and professors
⚫ Stress management
⚫ Thoughts of suicide
⚫ Trauma
Group counseling
⚫ Group counseling is a form of therapy where people
with similar experiences/issues come together with a
professional therapist.
⚫ It’s usually focused on a particular issue, like:
⚫ Addiction
⚫ Eating disorder
⚫ Bereavement
⚫ Depression
Psychotherapy
⚫ Therapy, also called psychotherapy or counseling, is the
process of meeting with a therapist to resolve problematic
behaviors, beliefs, feelings, relationship issues.
⚫ Psychotherapy can be helpful in treating most mental health
problems, including:
⚫ Anxiety Disorder
⚫ Mood disorder
⚫ Addiction
⚫ Personality disorder
⚫ Schizophrenia
Aims and Goals

⚫ Enhancing coping skills
⚫ Promoting Decision making
⚫ Improving relationship
⚫ Facilitating client’s potential
⚫ Facilitating behavior change

Role of counseling psychologist

⚫ Counseling psychology concern with wellness, personal
growth, career, education and development.
⚫ Counselor are concern with social justice and advocate.
⚫ Counselor deals with client in a wide variety of setting e.g.
individual, in groups or in family setup.

⚫ Counselor focus on their clients goals and they help clients
to accomplish their goals.

⚫ Counseling psychologist help people with physical,
emotional and mental issues.
Types of Counselors
⚫ Career Counselor/Counseling:
Also known as career guidance, is counseling designed to help
with choosing, changing, or leaving a career and is available at
any stage in life.
⚫ Mental health Counselor:

These professionals help patients with mental and emotional
problems, including anxiety, depression, stress and low self-
esteem
Cont…..
School Counselor
⚫ In a school setting they may offer therapy to students,
depending upon their training. May also help parents and
students develop life skills or plan for college.
Marriage and family counselor:

⚫ Marriage and family therapists are mental health
professionals that provide psychotherapy services and

support to individual clients as well as couples and families.
Cont……
Rehabilitation counselor:
⚫ They work with disabled individuals to build skills, cope
with feelings of anxiety and depression, and find solutions to
problems.
Function of counselor
⚫ To provide a relationship between counselor and
counselee.
⚫ To provide an alternative in self-understanding.
⚫ To provide leadership in developing a healthy
psychological environment for his client .
⚫ To provide for improvement of the counseling process
through constant individual criticism.
Major counseling Perspectives

Most counseling approaches fall within four broad
theoretical categories as mentioned below:
⚫ Psychoanalytic
⚫ Affective
⚫ Cognitive
⚫ Behavioral
Psychoanalytic perspectives
⚫ Psychoanalytic therapy is a form of talking therapy based
on the theories of Sigmund Freud.
⚫ Freud is the founder of psychoanalysis.
⚫ Freud was really interested in neurotic disorders
(insomnia, fatigue, depression and paralysis)
⚫ According to Freud, the structure of personality consists
of three parts: Id Ego Superego
Affective Approach
⚫ Client Centered Therapy
⚫ Client Centered Therapy, also known as Client-Centered
Counseling or Person-Centered Therapy
⚫ Client-center therapy was developed by CARL ROGERS
⚫ He emphasize the importance of the quality of the
relationship between the client and the therapist.
Client Centered Therapy

⚫ The "techniques" are simply ways of expressing and
communicating an attitude; self is used as an instrument.
⚫ One emphasis is on the “here and now” of the individual
existence and to help the client focus on her present feelings
by expressing them verballyTechniques of CCT.
⚫ Facilitate personal growth and development
⚫ Eliminate or lessen feelings of distress
⚫ Increase self-esteem and openness to experience
⚫ Enhance the client’s understanding of him- or herself
Behavioral Perspectives
⚫ Behavioral refers to a wide range of ideas, practices, and
theories.
⚫ Behavioral approaches are designed to change unwanted or
maladaptive behavior through the application of basic
learning principals
⚫ Behavioral approaches maintain that both abnormal and
normal behaviors are learned.
⚫ Cognitive behavioral approaches maintain that behavior and
perception play a reciprocal role in the process of change
Behavioral Perspective
Classical conditioning (respondent)
⚫ Pavlov's classical conditioning is the best example of
respondent learning, which occurs due to association
between two stimuli.
Operant conditioning (instrumental)
⚫ Condition occurs when a response is emitted in order to
obtain an outcome that reinforces the individual.
Cognitive perspectives
⚫ Cognitions are thoughts, beliefs, and internal images that
people have about events in their lives.
⚫ Cognitive theories of counseling focus on these mental
processes and their influences on mental health.
Cognitive Approach Goals

⚫ The promotion of self-awareness and emotional
intelligence by teaching clients to “read” their emotions
and feelings
⚫ Helping clients understand how distorted perceptions
and thoughts contribute to painful feelings.
⚫ The development of self-control by teaching clients
specific techniques to identify and challenge distorted
thinking
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

⚫ Counseling will focus on a client’s ability to accept behavior,
clarify problems and difficulties and understand the reasoning
behind the importance of setting goals.
⚫ With the help of self-management training, assertive
exercises and role-playing the counselor can help a client
work towards goals .
Counseling Process
Stage one: (Initial disclosure) Relationship building
⚫ The counseling process begins with relationship building.
⚫ This stage focuses on the counselor engaging with the client
to explore the issues that directly affect them.
⚫ The counselor focuses on using good listening skills and
building a positive relationship.
⚫ When successful, it ensures a strong foundation for future
dialogue and the continuing counseling process.
Counseling Process………
Stage two: (In-depth exploration) Problem assessment
⚫ The counselor carefully listens and draws out information
regarding the client’s situation (life, work, home, education,
etc.) and the reason they have engaged in counseling.
⚫ Information crucial to subsequent stages of counseling
includes identifying triggers, timing, environmental factors,
stress levels, and other contributing factors.
Stage three: (Commitment to action) Goal setting
⚫ Effective counseling relies on setting appropriate and realistic
goals, building on the previous stages.
⚫ The goals must be identified and developed collaboratively,
with the client committing to a set of steps leading to a
particular outcome.
⚫ Stage four: Counseling intervention
⚫ This stage varies depending on the counselor and the theories
they are familiar with, as well as the situation the client faces.
⚫ For example, a behavioral approachmay suggest engaging in
activities designed to help the client alter their behavior. In
comparison, a person-centered approachseeks to engage the
client’s self-actualizing tendency.
Stage five: Evaluation, termination, or referral
⚫ Termination may not seem like a stage, but the art of ending
the counseling is critical.
⚫ Drawing counseling to a close must be planned well in
advance to ensure a positive conclusion is reached while
avoiding anger, sadness, or anxiety
⚫ This may lead to a referral if required.
Interventions
Behavioral techniques
⚫ Techniques in behavioral therapies apply the learning
principles to change maladaptive behaviors.
Psychoanalytic Method
⚫ Psychoanalytic therapy looks at how the unconscious mind
influences thoughts and behaviors
⚫ Freud described the unconscious as the reservoir of desires,
thoughts, and memories that are below the surface of
conscious awareness
Interventions
Affective model of counseling
⚫ CCT
⚫ Client –center theory place little stress on techniques
⚫ It emphasizes the counselor’s person, belief, and attitude and
the counseling relationship itself.
Cognitive Behavioral Approach
⚫ The major techniques of REBT are labeled as directive
teaching.
⚫ Cognitive behavioral therapy can be thought of as a
combination of psychotherapy and behavioral therapy.
Interventions
Techniques in rational emotive behavior therapy
(REBT)
⚫ Rational emotive behavior therapy was one of the first
cognitive behavior therapies.
⚫ It is also known as REBT.
⚫ It is a form of cognitive behavior therapy that emphasizes
reorganizing cognitive and emotional functions, redefining
problems, and changing attitudes in order to develop more
acceptable patterns of behavior.
Cont…..
In REBT following emotional techniques are used;
⚫ Rational emotive imagery
⚫ Role playing
⚫ Humor
⚫ Shame attacking exercise
Valuable Skills for Each Phase

⚫ Good communication is vital to all stages of counseling. Skills
should ideally include:
• Active listening
• Clarification
• Reflection
• Effective questioning
Cont….
⚫ Be able to experience and show empathy (rather than
sympathy)
⚫ See things from the client’s perspective
⚫ Have a genuine interest in others’ wellbeing
⚫ Use self-reflection to observe themselves and empathize with
others
⚫ Show accessibility and authenticity during counseling sessions
⚫ Be flexible in their views and thinking regarding differing
values and multicultural issues
⚫ Be able to maintain a sense of humor
⚫ Be resilient and able to bounce back from difficult situations
Counseling Techniques in Various

Scenarios
⚫Lets watch
videos
References
⚫ https://www.slideshare.net/JiyaAbdulSattar/counseling-
psychology-124937751

Behavioural Psychology 6th Semester BSN Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Behavioural Psychology 6th Semester BSN Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Behavioural Psychology 6th Semester BSN Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Topics

· Introduction to Behavioural Psychology

At the end of this unit learners will be able to:

Historical Roots of Modern Psychology

• Psychology has also been defined as the science of

• The word consciousness does not include

Earlier Schools Of Thought

• Gestalt psychology: focused on studying the whole

What is behavioral psychology?

• “Behavioral psychology is the study of the connection

Any action that others can observe and measures:

Prevalent Approaches / Models /

• The approach that concentrates on the belief that

Behaviorist / Behavioral Approach

• The psychological model that focuses on the overt

• Classical Conditioning: The Theory

• The psychological model that focuses on how

• How human behaviors required for

• Importance of social and cultural

BIOLOGY & BEHAVIOR

Nature versus Nurture.

• Those who take up the nurture side of the debate

• The biological perspective tends to stress the

Biological influences on behavior

idea that evolution and genetics play a role in

Biological influences on behavior

• Physical structures and hereditary processes

• Physical/physiological interventions can alter

• Root cause of abnormalities and disorders lies in

Biological Psychologists Interested in…….

Theories in biological model

Neurotransmitters and Their Role

• Acetylcholine: Learning, Memory and Muscle control

Focus of study cont.…..

Gene - basic unit of heredity; codes for a specific

• Psychologically an individual’s environment is

Role of heredity and environment in the

• Monozygotic twins, also called identical twins, are the

• Dizygotic twins, sometimes called fraternal or

How do your life experiences influence

Research methods used in behavior

(UNIT III) PERSON PERCEPTION

1. Social cognition is the study of the mental processes

Types of person perception

Direct person perception

Kelley's Covariation Model

Implicit Personality Theories

granted that other people are equally honest and trustworthy.

Ways to approach self and others

At the end of this unit learners will be able to:

Characteristics of Effective Communication

Effective Communication Skills

Step 2: Restate their concerns

Step 3: Empathise and apologies

Step 4: Offer a solution

Step 5: Follow through and follow-up

Tips on managing difficult situations

What is self disclosure?

Factors Influencing Self-Disclosure