Analytic Geometry
Analytic Geometry
Analytic Geometry
This is a coordinate system based on a two-dimensional plane consisting of The point which divides a line segment in a given ratio is called the point
two directed lines, the 𝒙-axis (horizontal axis) and 𝒚-axis (vertical axis), of division.
perpendicular to each other intersecting at the point (0, 0), the origin, and Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a point of division on a line directed from 𝑃1 through 𝑃2
dividing the plane into four quadrants. 𝑃 𝑃
1
such that 𝑟 = 𝑃𝑃 , which is positive if 𝑃 divides the line segment 𝑃1 𝑃2
2
Rectangular (or Cartesian) Coordinates
internally and negative if 𝑃 lies on the segment extended in either
The position of point 𝑃 is known if its distances from the axes are given,
direction dividing 𝑃1 𝑃2 externally.
each being measured in a definite sense, from the axis to the point.
The distance from the 𝑦-axis is called the 𝒙-coordinate (or abscissa) of
the point; positive if measured to the right, negative if measured to the
left.
The distance from the 𝑥-axis is called the 𝒚-coordinate (or ordinate) of
the point; positive if measured upward, negative if measured
downward.
The two distances taken together are called the rectangular (or
Cartesian) coordinates of the point and are represented by the ordered The coordinates of the point of division 𝑃 are given by:
𝑥1 +𝑟𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑟𝑦2
pair (𝑥, 𝑦). 𝑥= and 𝑦 =
1+𝑟 1+𝑟
Inclination and Slope of a Line
The angle of inclination of a straight line 𝑙, which is not parallel to the
𝑥-axis, is defined as the smallest positive angle measured from the
positive direction of the 𝑥-axis in a counterclockwise direction to 𝑙.
If 𝑙 is parallel to the 𝑥-axis, its inclination is defined as zero.
Distance Between Two Points (in Rectangular Coordinates)
Standard Form
The equation of the circle with its center at (ℎ, 𝑘) and radius 𝑟 is
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 The path of a point which moves so that its distance from a fixed point is in
General Form constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line is called a conic section, or a
The general equation of the second degree in two variables may be conic.
written as The fixed point is the focus of the conic, the fixed line the directrix, and the
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 constant ratio the eccentricity usually represented by 𝑒.
The conic sections fall into three classes, which vary in form and in certain The chord through the focus and perpendicular to the axis is called the latus
properties. These classes are distinguished by the value of the eccentricity: rectum. The length of the latus rectum is four times the distance between
If 𝑒 = 1, the conic is a parabola. the vertex and the focus or 4𝑎.
If 𝑒 < 1, the conic is an ellipse. Standard Form
If 𝑒 > 1, the conic is a hyperbola. The equation of a parabola in standard form with vertex at (ℎ, 𝑘) is
Note: Geometrical Condition Equation of the Parabola
The circle is considered to be a special case of the ellipse. If the axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis and the
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)
We agree to consider degenerate forms of parabola (two parallel or curve opens to the right
coincident lines), of circle or ellipse (singular point), and of hyperbola If the axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis and the
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = −4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)
(two intersecting lines) as degenerate conics or conic sections of curve opens to the left
exceptional type. If the axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis and the
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)
curve opens upward
If the axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis and the
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 = −4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)
curve opens downward
General Form
Geometrical Condition Equation of the Parabola
If the axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
If the axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
Parabola
The parabola is the locus of points which are equidistant from a fixed point Note:
and a fixed line. Exception arises when 𝐷 = 0 and 𝐸 = 0, where the equation of the
The opening of the parabola can be one of the following: parabola involves only one variable.
right Nature of Roots for the Quadratic Equation
Locus of the Parabola
left in 𝒚 (when 𝑫 = 𝟎) or in 𝒙 (when 𝑬 = 𝟎)
upward If the roots are real and distinct Two Parallel Lines
downward If the roots are real and equal Two Coincident Lines
The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of If the roots are imaginary No Locus
the curve, also known as axis of symmetry of the parabola. Two parallel lines cannot be cut from a cone. They can, however, be cut
The point where the axis intersects the curve, i.e., the point midway from a cylinder, which is the form approached by a cone with a fixed right
between the focus and the directrix, is the vertex (ℎ, 𝑘) of the parabola. section as the vertex recedes indefinitely.
The undirected distance from the vertex to the focus will be denoted by 𝑎, Ellipse
so that 𝑎 is always positive. The ellipse is the conic section for which 𝑒 < 1. Also, it is the locus of a
The directrix is always located opposite the opening of the parabola and has point which moves so that the sum of its distances from two fixed points is
a distance of 𝑎 from the vertex. constant.
The fixed points are the foci; the constant sum which is equal to 2𝑎 is the Hyperbola
length of the major axis where 𝑎 > 𝑏. The hyperbola is the conic section for which 𝑒 > 1. Also, it is the locus of a
The shorter axis, called the minor axis, has a length of 2𝑏. point which moves so that the difference of its distances from two fixed
The axes of the ellipse are its lines of symmetry. points is constant.
The center of the ellipse is at (ℎ, 𝑘) which is the midpoint of both the major The fixed points are the foci and the constant difference which is equal to
and minor axes. 2𝑎 is the length of the transverse axis.
The endpoints of the major axis are the vertices of ellipse, and the The conjugate axis is perpendicular to the transverse axis and has a length
endpoints of the minor axis are its co-vertices. of 2𝑏.
√𝑎 2 −𝑏2 The transverse and conjugate axes, when extended indefinitely, are the
The eccentricity is 𝑒 = .
𝑎
lines of symmetry for the hyperbola.
The distance from center to foci is 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 . The center of the hyperbola is at (ℎ, 𝑘) which is the midpoint of both the
A chord through a focus of an ellipse and perpendicular to the major axis is transverse and conjugate axes.
2𝑏2
called the latus rectum with a length of 𝑎
. The endpoints of the transverse axis are the vertices of hyperbola.
Since the ellipse has two foci, it will have two directrices which are √𝑎 2 +𝑏2
The eccentricity is 𝑒 = 𝑎
.
𝑎
perpendicular to the major axis and with 𝑒 distance from the center.
The distance from center to foci is 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
Standard Form A chord through a focus of a hyperbola and perpendicular to the transverse
The equation of an ellipse in standard form with center at (ℎ, 𝑘) is 2𝑏2
axis is called the latus rectum with a length of 𝑎
.
Geometrical Condition Equation of the Ellipse
The two directrices which are perpendicular to the transverse axis have a
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
If the major axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis + =1 𝑎
distance of from the center.
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑒
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2 The hyperbola approaches two lines of asymptotes more and more closely
If the major axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 as the distance from the center increases, but without ever intersecting
General Form these lines.
In either case, the general form of the equation of the ellipse is The asymptotes of a hyperbola are the diagonal lines of the rectangle
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 whose center is the center of the curve and whose sides are parallel and
where 𝐴 and 𝐶 have the same sign. equal to the length of the axes of the curve.
Note: The equations of the asymptotes are
There are two exceptional cases. When the equation of the ellipse is written if the transverse axis is parallel to the 𝑥-axis
in its standard form but the right hand side is zero or negative. 𝑏
𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ)
Value of the Right Hand Side of the 𝑎
Locus of the Ellipse or
Equation of Ellipse in Standard Form
Single Point (ℎ, 𝑘), and is if the transverse axis is parallel to the 𝑦-axis
If zero 𝑎
called a point-ellipse. 𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑏
If negative No locus
Standard Form Curve Tracing
The equation of a hyperbola in standard form with center at (ℎ, 𝑘) is In Geometry, curve tracing includes techniques that can be used to produce
Geometrical Condition Equation of the Ellipse a rough idea of the overall graphic representation of a plane curve given its
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 equation without computing a large number of points required for a
If the transverse axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 detailed plot.
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2 To develop the general appearance and properties of the curve, we discover
If the transverse axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 algebraic properties of the equation, and then interpret the results
General Form geometrically.
In either case, the general form of the equation of the hyperbola is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 Recommended Steps for Curve Tracing in Rectangular Coordinates:
where 𝐴 and 𝐶 have opposite signs. 1. Test the curve for symmetry.
Note: 2. Solve for the intercepts or the intersections of the curve with the axes
The only exceptional case is the one when the equation of the hyperbola is and find out if there are any excluded values of 𝑥.
written in its standard form but the right hand side is zero. In this case, the 3. Study the behavior of 𝑦 for large values of 𝑥 and evaluate if there are
equation can be factored and represents two lines intersecting at (ℎ, 𝑘). any horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
4. Determine certain definite portions of the plane within which the curve
must lie.
5. Look for any further general information that may be obtainable; and if
necessary, plot a few points.