Rectangular (or Cartesian) Coordinate System  Point of Division

This is a coordinate system based on a two-dimensional plane consisting of The point which divides a line segment in a given ratio is called the point
two directed lines, the 𝒙-axis (horizontal axis) and 𝒚-axis (vertical axis), of division.
perpendicular to each other intersecting at the point (0, 0), the origin, and Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a point of division on a line directed from 𝑃1 through 𝑃2
dividing the plane into four quadrants. 𝑃 𝑃
1
such that 𝑟 = 𝑃𝑃 , which is positive if 𝑃 divides the line segment 𝑃1 𝑃2
2
Rectangular (or Cartesian) Coordinates
internally and negative if 𝑃 lies on the segment extended in either
The position of point 𝑃 is known if its distances from the axes are given,
direction dividing 𝑃1 𝑃2 externally.
each being measured in a definite sense, from the axis to the point.
 The distance from the 𝑦-axis is called the 𝒙-coordinate (or abscissa) of
the point; positive if measured to the right, negative if measured to the
left.
 The distance from the 𝑥-axis is called the 𝒚-coordinate (or ordinate) of
the point; positive if measured upward, negative if measured
downward.
 The two distances taken together are called the rectangular (or
Cartesian) coordinates of the point and are represented by the ordered The coordinates of the point of division 𝑃 are given by:
𝑥1 +𝑟𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑟𝑦2
pair (𝑥, 𝑦). 𝑥= and 𝑦 =
1+𝑟 1+𝑟
 Inclination and Slope of a Line
The angle of inclination of a straight line 𝑙, which is not parallel to the
𝑥-axis, is defined as the smallest positive angle measured from the
positive direction of the 𝑥-axis in a counterclockwise direction to 𝑙.
If 𝑙 is parallel to the 𝑥-axis, its inclination is defined as zero.
 Distance Between Two Points (in Rectangular Coordinates)

The slope of a line, denoted by 𝑚, is defined as the tangent of the angle

of inclination. This can also be calculated by finding the ratio of the
change in 𝑦 (vertical change or rise) to the change in 𝑥 (horizontal
change or run) between any two distinct points 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and
The distance 𝑑 between two points 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) on a line.
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
  If 𝑚 > 0, then the line is increasing as it goes up from left to right.  The angle 𝜃 is called the polar angle; positive if measured
 If 𝑚 < 0, then the line is decreasing as it goes down from left to counterclockwise, negative if measured clockwise.
right.  The radius vector and the polar angle taken together are called the
 If a line is horizontal, then the slope is zero. polar coordinates of the point and are represented by the ordered pair
 If a line is vertical, then the slope is undefined. (𝑟, 𝜃).
 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
 Two distinct nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if their slopes
are equal.
 Two distinct lines that are neither horizontal nor vertical lines are
perpendicular if and only if their slopes are negative reciprocals of
each other.
 Angle Between Two Intersecting Lines

 Relation Between Rectangular and Polar Coordinates

The angle 𝜃 measured in a positive direction, counterclockwise, from

the line 𝑙1 whose slope is 𝑚1 to the line 𝑙2 whose slope is 𝑚2 is given by
𝑚2 − 𝑚1
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2
Polar Coordinate System 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
This is a coordinate system in which the location of a point is determined in 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
terms of its distance from a fixed point, the pole, and the measurement of 𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
the angle formed by a fixed line, the polar axis, and a line from the pole 𝑥
 Distance Between Two Points (in Polar Coordinates)
through the given point.
Polar Coordinates
The position of any point 𝑃 in the plane is determined if we know the length
of the line segment 𝑂𝑃 together with the angle 𝜃 that this line segment
makes with the polar axis, both being measured in a definite sense.
 The line segment 𝑂𝑃 is called the radius vector 𝑟; positive if measured
from the pole to the point along the terminal side of 𝜃, negative if
measured in the opposite direction on the terminal side produced
𝑑 = √𝑟12 + 𝑟22 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
through 𝑂.
Two Fundamental Problems of Analytic Geometry Symmetry for Equations in Polar Coordinates
1. Given an equation, to find the corresponding locus. If the equation is unchanged when we change:
2. Given a locus defined by some geometrical condition, to find the  𝜽 to – 𝜽, or the curve is symmetric with respect
corresponding equation. 𝜽 to 𝝅 − 𝜽 and 𝒓 to −𝒓 to the polar axis
 The locus (or graph) of an equation in two variables is the curve  𝜽 to 𝝅 − 𝜽, or the curve is symmetric about the
containing all the points, and only the points, whose coordinates satisfy 𝜽 to – 𝜽 and 𝒓 to −𝒓 90°-line through the pole
the equation.
 𝒓 to – 𝒓, or the curve is symmetric with respect
 The curve corresponding to a given equation is said to represent the to the pole
𝜽 to 𝝅 + 𝜽
equation geometrically, while the equation represents the curve
Straight Lines
analytically.
A straight line in the plane is the set of points whose coordinates satisfy a
Note:
given linear equation.
It should be remarked that in exceptional cases, an equation may
A straight line is completely determined if its direction is known and a point
represent only a single point, or it may have no locus at all.
is given through which the line must pass.
Intercepts on the Axes
Form Equation of the Line
In a Cartesian coordinate system, intercepts of a curve refer to the
 Point-Slope Form 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
coordinates of points where the curve intersects the coordinate axes.
 Slope-Intercept Form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
 If the graph of an equation crosses the 𝑥-axis at a point with 𝑥-
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
coordinate 𝑎, then the point (𝑎, 0) is called the 𝒙-intercept; i.e., the  Two-Point Form =
value of 𝑥 if 𝑦 = 0. 𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
 If the graph of an equation crosses the 𝑦-axis at a point with 𝑦- 𝑥 𝑦
 Intercept Form + =1
coordinate 𝑏, then the point (0, 𝑏) is called the 𝒚-intercept; i.e., the 𝑎 𝑏
value of 𝑦 if 𝑥 = 0.  Standard Form 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 = 𝐶1
Symmetry for Equations in Rectangular Coordinates  General Form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
Two points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are symmetric with respect to a line if that line is the 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑥+ 𝑦=−
perpendicular bisector of the line segment 𝑃1 𝑃2 . ±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
Two points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are symmetric about a point if that point is the where the sign of the radical √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 is
midpoint of 𝑃1 𝑃2 . chosen similar to that of 𝐵 if 𝐵 ≠ 0.
It follows that: Otherwise, if 𝐵 = 0, the sign of the radical is
 A curve is symmetric with respect to the 𝑥-axis if its equation remains  Normal Form chosen the same as that of 𝐴.
unchanged when 𝑦 is replaced by −𝑦. 𝐶
The value of 𝑝 = − is the perpendicular
±√𝐴2 +𝐵2
 A curve is symmetric with respect to the 𝑦-axis if its equation remains
directed distance of the line from the origin
unchanged when 𝑥 is replaced by −𝑥.
where the sign of 𝑝 denotes the location of the
 A curve is symmetric about the origin if its equation remains unchanged
line from the origin; positive if the line is above
when 𝑥 is replaced by −𝑥 and 𝑦 is replaced by −𝑦.
the origin, negative if it is below the origin.
 Distance from a Line to a Point Consider now the special case for the equation of circles in general form
where 𝐴 = 𝐶 and 𝐵 = 0; that is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
In some problems, it is convenient to make the coefficient of the square
terms to unity by dividing through by 𝐴 and so we can write the
equation of the circle as
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷1 𝑥 + 𝐸1 𝑦 + 𝐹1 = 0
By completing the squares, we have
The directed distance from the line 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 to the point
𝐷1 2 𝐸1 2 𝐷1 2 𝐸1 2
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is 𝑥 2 + 𝐷1 𝑥 + ( ) + 𝑦 2 + 𝐸1 𝑦 + ( ) = ( ) + ( ) − 𝐹1
2 2 2 2
𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶
𝑑= or
±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝐷1 2 𝐸1 2 𝐷12 + 𝐸12 − 4𝐹1
where the ambiguous sign is taken like the sign of 𝐵, or if 𝐵 = 0, like the (𝑥 + ) + (𝑦 + ) =
2 2 4
sign of 𝐴. 𝐷1 𝐸
The center of the circle is at the point (− 2 , − 21 ), and the radius is
The distance as given by the formula is positive or negative according as
1
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) lies above or below the given line. 𝑟 = 2 √𝐷12 + 𝐸12 − 4𝐹1 .
Circles  If 𝐷12 + 𝐸12 − 4𝐹1 > 0, then the circle is real.
A circle is the locus of a point that moves at a constant distance, the radius,  If 𝐷12 + 𝐸12 − 4𝐹1 < 0, then the circle is imaginary.
from a fixed point, the center. 𝐷1 𝐸
 If 𝐷12 + 𝐸12 − 4𝐹1 = 0, then the locus is the single point (− 2
, − 21 )
A circle is completely determined if its center and radius are known.
which is called a point-circle.
Conic Sections

 Standard Form
The equation of the circle with its center at (ℎ, 𝑘) and radius 𝑟 is
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 The path of a point which moves so that its distance from a fixed point is in
 General Form constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line is called a conic section, or a
The general equation of the second degree in two variables may be conic.
written as The fixed point is the focus of the conic, the fixed line the directrix, and the
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 constant ratio the eccentricity usually represented by 𝑒.
The conic sections fall into three classes, which vary in form and in certain The chord through the focus and perpendicular to the axis is called the latus
properties. These classes are distinguished by the value of the eccentricity: rectum. The length of the latus rectum is four times the distance between
 If 𝑒 = 1, the conic is a parabola. the vertex and the focus or 4𝑎.
 If 𝑒 < 1, the conic is an ellipse.  Standard Form
 If 𝑒 > 1, the conic is a hyperbola. The equation of a parabola in standard form with vertex at (ℎ, 𝑘) is
Note: Geometrical Condition Equation of the Parabola
 The circle is considered to be a special case of the ellipse.  If the axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis and the
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)
 We agree to consider degenerate forms of parabola (two parallel or curve opens to the right
coincident lines), of circle or ellipse (singular point), and of hyperbola  If the axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis and the
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = −4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)
(two intersecting lines) as degenerate conics or conic sections of curve opens to the left
exceptional type.  If the axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis and the
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)
curve opens upward
 If the axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis and the
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 = −4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)
curve opens downward
 General Form
Geometrical Condition Equation of the Parabola
 If the axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
 If the axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
Parabola
The parabola is the locus of points which are equidistant from a fixed point Note:
and a fixed line. Exception arises when 𝐷 = 0 and 𝐸 = 0, where the equation of the
The opening of the parabola can be one of the following: parabola involves only one variable.
 right Nature of Roots for the Quadratic Equation
Locus of the Parabola
 left in 𝒚 (when 𝑫 = 𝟎) or in 𝒙 (when 𝑬 = 𝟎)
 upward  If the roots are real and distinct Two Parallel Lines
 downward  If the roots are real and equal Two Coincident Lines
The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of  If the roots are imaginary No Locus
the curve, also known as axis of symmetry of the parabola. Two parallel lines cannot be cut from a cone. They can, however, be cut
The point where the axis intersects the curve, i.e., the point midway from a cylinder, which is the form approached by a cone with a fixed right
between the focus and the directrix, is the vertex (ℎ, 𝑘) of the parabola. section as the vertex recedes indefinitely.
The undirected distance from the vertex to the focus will be denoted by 𝑎, Ellipse
so that 𝑎 is always positive. The ellipse is the conic section for which 𝑒 < 1. Also, it is the locus of a
The directrix is always located opposite the opening of the parabola and has point which moves so that the sum of its distances from two fixed points is
a distance of 𝑎 from the vertex. constant.
The fixed points are the foci; the constant sum which is equal to 2𝑎 is the Hyperbola
length of the major axis where 𝑎 > 𝑏. The hyperbola is the conic section for which 𝑒 > 1. Also, it is the locus of a
The shorter axis, called the minor axis, has a length of 2𝑏. point which moves so that the difference of its distances from two fixed
The axes of the ellipse are its lines of symmetry. points is constant.
The center of the ellipse is at (ℎ, 𝑘) which is the midpoint of both the major The fixed points are the foci and the constant difference which is equal to
and minor axes. 2𝑎 is the length of the transverse axis.
The endpoints of the major axis are the vertices of ellipse, and the The conjugate axis is perpendicular to the transverse axis and has a length
endpoints of the minor axis are its co-vertices. of 2𝑏.
√𝑎 2 −𝑏2 The transverse and conjugate axes, when extended indefinitely, are the
The eccentricity is 𝑒 = .
𝑎
lines of symmetry for the hyperbola.
The distance from center to foci is 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 . The center of the hyperbola is at (ℎ, 𝑘) which is the midpoint of both the
A chord through a focus of an ellipse and perpendicular to the major axis is transverse and conjugate axes.
2𝑏2
called the latus rectum with a length of 𝑎
. The endpoints of the transverse axis are the vertices of hyperbola.
Since the ellipse has two foci, it will have two directrices which are √𝑎 2 +𝑏2
The eccentricity is 𝑒 = 𝑎
.
𝑎
perpendicular to the major axis and with 𝑒 distance from the center.
The distance from center to foci is 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
 Standard Form A chord through a focus of a hyperbola and perpendicular to the transverse
The equation of an ellipse in standard form with center at (ℎ, 𝑘) is 2𝑏2
axis is called the latus rectum with a length of 𝑎
.
Geometrical Condition Equation of the Ellipse
The two directrices which are perpendicular to the transverse axis have a
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
 If the major axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis + =1 𝑎
distance of from the center.
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑒
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2 The hyperbola approaches two lines of asymptotes more and more closely
 If the major axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 as the distance from the center increases, but without ever intersecting
 General Form these lines.
In either case, the general form of the equation of the ellipse is The asymptotes of a hyperbola are the diagonal lines of the rectangle
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 whose center is the center of the curve and whose sides are parallel and
where 𝐴 and 𝐶 have the same sign. equal to the length of the axes of the curve.
Note: The equations of the asymptotes are
There are two exceptional cases. When the equation of the ellipse is written  if the transverse axis is parallel to the 𝑥-axis
in its standard form but the right hand side is zero or negative. 𝑏
𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ)
Value of the Right Hand Side of the 𝑎
Locus of the Ellipse or
Equation of Ellipse in Standard Form
Single Point (ℎ, 𝑘), and is  if the transverse axis is parallel to the 𝑦-axis
 If zero 𝑎
called a point-ellipse. 𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑏
 If negative No locus
 Standard Form Curve Tracing
The equation of a hyperbola in standard form with center at (ℎ, 𝑘) is In Geometry, curve tracing includes techniques that can be used to produce
Geometrical Condition Equation of the Ellipse a rough idea of the overall graphic representation of a plane curve given its
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 equation without computing a large number of points required for a
 If the transverse axis is parallel to the 𝒙-axis − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 detailed plot.
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2 To develop the general appearance and properties of the curve, we discover
 If the transverse axis is parallel to the 𝒚-axis − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 algebraic properties of the equation, and then interpret the results
 General Form geometrically.
In either case, the general form of the equation of the hyperbola is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 Recommended Steps for Curve Tracing in Rectangular Coordinates:
where 𝐴 and 𝐶 have opposite signs. 1. Test the curve for symmetry.
Note: 2. Solve for the intercepts or the intersections of the curve with the axes
The only exceptional case is the one when the equation of the hyperbola is and find out if there are any excluded values of 𝑥.
written in its standard form but the right hand side is zero. In this case, the 3. Study the behavior of 𝑦 for large values of 𝑥 and evaluate if there are
equation can be factored and represents two lines intersecting at (ℎ, 𝑘). any horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
4. Determine certain definite portions of the plane within which the curve
must lie.
5. Look for any further general information that may be obtainable; and if
necessary, plot a few points.

Recommended Steps for Curve Tracing in Polar Coordinates:

1. Test the curve for symmetry.
2. Find out if there are any excluded values of 𝜃.
3. Plot a few points then observe the variation of 𝑟 as 𝜃 varies.