Stress definitions

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The Evolution of the Definition of Stress

• The definition of stress has evolved over time. Early definitions focused on changes in physiology. More
recent definitions highlight the fact that stress occurs when an individual perceives something as
threatening. Thus, stress is subjective; two individuals can experience the same event but only one might
experience the event as stress.

o » Walter Cannon (1929) defined stress as physical and psychological “disturbances” that threaten
homeostasis (the body’s state of balance) and coined the expression “fight or flight.”
o » Hans Selye (1956) defined stress as a stimulus that produces a physiological response and
created the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model to describe the physiological changes that
occur during stress.
o » Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman (1984) defined stress as occurring when a person
determines they do not have the personal or social resources to respond to a perceived threat.
o » Modern researchers define stress as the process by which we perceive and respond to
circumstances that we appraise as threaten- ing. This leads to a series of emotional (affective),
behavioral, cognitive, and physiological changes.

Questions to consider:

How were Walter Cannon’s and Hans Selye’s definitions of stress similar?

What do Lazarus and Folkman mean that stress occurs when a person determines they do not have the
personal or social resources to respond to a perceived threat?

How is this different from both Cannon and Selye?

According to modern researchers, how is stress currently defined?

Stress As a Response

Stress as a response model, initially introduced by Hans Selye (1956), describes

stress as a physiological response pattern and was captured within his general
adaptation syndrome (GAS)model (Figure 12.6). This model describes stress as
a dependent variable and includes three concepts:

1. Stress is a defensive mechanism.

2. Stress follows the three stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
3. If the stress is prolonged or severe, it could result in diseases of adaptation or even
death.

Later, Selye introduced the idea that the stress response could result in positive or
negative outcomes based on cognitive interpretations of the physical symptoms or
physiological experience (Figure 12.6, “The General Adaptation to Stress Model”).
In this way, stress could be experienced as eustress (positive)
or dystress (negative). However, Selye always considered stress to be a
physiologically based construct or response. Gradually, other researchers
expanded the thinking on stress to include and involve psychological concepts
earlier in the stress model.

Figure 12.6 General Adaptation to Stress (GAS) Model.

The response model of stress incorporates coping within the model itself. The idea
of adaptation or coping is inherent to the GAS model at both the alarm and
resistance stages. When confronted with a negative stimulus, the alarm response
initiates the sympathetic nervous system to combat or avoid the stressor (i.e.,
increased heart rate, temperature, adrenaline, and glucose levels). The resistance
response then initiates physiological systems with a fight or flight reaction to the
stressor, returning the system to homeostasis, reducing harm, or more generally
accommodating the stressor, which can lead to adaptive diseases such as sleep
deprivation, mental illness, hypertension, or heart disease. Thus, along with the
early conceptualization of stress as a physiological response, early research on
 coping was also born. As early as 1932, Walter Cannon described the notion of
self-regulation in his work The Wisdom of the Body.

Stress As a Stimulus

The theory of stress as a stimulus was introduced in the 1960s, and viewed stress
as a significant life event or change that demands response, adjustment, or
adaptation. Holmes and Rahe (1967) theorized that stress was an independent
variable in the health-stress-coping equation — the cause of an experience rather
than the experience itself. While some correlations emerged between SRRS scores
and illness (Rahe, Mahan, & Arthur, 1970; Johnson & Sarason, 1979), there were
problems with the stress as stimulus theory. The stress as stimulus theory assumes:

1. Change is inherently stressful.

2. Life events demand the same levels of adjustment across the population.
3. There is a common threshold of adjustment beyond which illness will result.

Rahe and Holmes initially viewed the human subject as a passive recipient of
stress, one who played no role in determining the degree, intensity, or valence of
the stressor. Later, Rahe introduced the concept of interpretation into his research
(Rahe & Arthur, 1978), suggesting that a change or life event could be interpreted
as a positive or negative experience based on cognitive and emotional factors.
However, the stress as stimulus model still ignored important variables such as
prior learning, environment, support networks, personality, and life experience.

Summary: Some have conceptualized stress as a demanding or threatening event

or situation (e.g., a high-stress job, overcrowding, and long commutes to work). Such
conceptualizations are known as stimulus-based definitions because they
characterize stress as a stimulus that causes certain reactions. Stimulus-based
definitions of stress are problematic, however, because they fail to recognize that
people differ in how they view and react to challenging life events and situations. For
example, a conscientious student who has studied diligently all semester would likely
experience less stress during final exams week than would a less responsible,
unprepared student.
Others have conceptualized stress in ways that emphasize the physiological
responses that occur when faced with demanding or threatening situations (e.g.,
increased arousal). These conceptualizations are referred to as response-based
definitions because they describe stress as a response to environmental conditions.
For example, the endocrinologist Hans Selye, a famous stress researcher, once
defined stress as the “response of the body to any demand, whether it is caused by,
or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions” (Selye, 1976, p. 74). Selye’s
definition of stress is response-based in that it conceptualizes stress chiefly in terms
of the body’s physiological reaction to any demand that is placed on it. Neither
stimulus-based nor response-based definitions provide a complete definition of
stress. Many of the physiological reactions that occur when faced with demanding
situations (e.g., accelerated heart rate) can also occur in response to things that
most people would not consider to be genuinely stressful, such as receiving
unanticipated good news: an unexpected promotion or raise.

Stress As a Transaction

In attempting to explain stress as more of a dynamic process, Richard Lazarus

developed the transactional theory of stress and coping (TTSC) (Lazarus, 1966;
Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), which presents stress as a product of a transaction
between a person (including multiple systems: cognitive, physiological, affective,
psychological, neurological) and his or her complex environment. Stress as a
transaction was introduced with the most impact when Dr. Susan Kobasa first
used the concept of hardiness (Kobasa, 1979). Hardiness refers to a pattern of
personality characteristics that distinguishes people who remain healthy under life
stress compared with those who develop health problems. In the late 1970s, the
concept of hardiness was further developed by Salvatore Maddi, Kobasa, and their
graduate students at the University of Chicago (Kobasa, 1982; Kobasa & Maddi,
1981; Kobasa, Maddi, & Kahn, 1982; Kobasa, Maddi, Puccetti, & Zola, 1985;
Maddi & Kobasa, 1984). Hardiness has some notable similarities with other
personality constructs in psychology, including locus of control (Rotter, 1966),
sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987), self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), and
dispositional optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985), all of which will be discussed in
the next section. Researchers introduced multiple variables to the stress-as-
transaction model, expanding and categorizing various factors to account for the
complex systems involved in experiencing a stressor (Werner, 1993). The nature of
stress was described in multiple ways: acute, episodic or intermittent, and chronic.
Different types of stressors emerged, such as event, situation, cue, and condition,
which then fell into categories based on locus of control, predictability, tone,
impact, and duration. Figure 12.7 illustrates theories of stress as a response,
stimulus, and transaction.
Figure 12.7 Theories of stress as response, stimulus, and transaction.

In his book Psychological Stress and the Coping Process (1966), Lazarus
presented an elegant integration of previous research on stress, health, and coping
that placed a person’s appraisal of a stressor at the centre of the stress experience.
How an individual appraises a stressor determines how he or she copes with or
responds to the stressor. Whether or not a stressor is experienced as discomforting
is influenced by a variety of personal and contextual factors including capacities,
skills and abilities, constraints, resources, and norms (Mechanic, 1978). Lazarus
and Folkman (1984) unpacked the concept of interpretation further in their model
of stress appraisal, which includes primary, secondary, and reappraisal components
(see Figure 12.8, “The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping”). Primary
appraisal involves determining whether the stressor poses a threat. Secondary
appraisal involves the individual’s evaluation of the resources or coping
strategies at his or her disposal for addressing any perceived threats. The process
of reappraisal is ongoing and involves continually reappraising both the nature of
the stressor and the resources available for responding to the stressor.

Figure 12.8 The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping, by J. Walinga.

Unit 2

Physical symptoms of stress

Musculoskeletal system
When the body is stressed, muscles tense up. Muscle tension is almost a reflex reaction
to stress—the body’s way of guarding against injury and pain.
With sudden onset stress, the muscles tense up all at once, and then release their
tension when the stress passes. Chronic stress causes the muscles in the body to be in a
more or less constant state of guardedness. When muscles are taut and tense for long
periods of time, this may trigger other reactions of the body and even promote stress-
related disorders.
For example, both tension-type headache and migraine headache are associated with
chronic muscle tension in the area of the shoulders, neck and head. Musculoskeletal
pain in the low back and upper extremities has also been linked to stress, especially job
stress.
Millions of individuals suffer from chronic painful conditions secondary to
musculoskeletal disorders. Often, but not always, there may be an injury that sets off the
chronic painful state. What determines whether or not an injured person goes on to
suffer from chronic pain is how they respond to the injury. Individuals who are fearful
of pain and re-injury, and who seek only a physical cause and cure for the injury,
generally have a worse recovery than individuals who maintain a certain level of
moderate, physician-supervised activity. Muscle tension, and eventually, muscle
atrophy due to disuse of the body, all promote chronic, stress-related musculoskeletal
conditions.
Relaxation techniques and other stress-relieving activities and therapies have been
shown to effectively reduce muscle tension, decrease the incidence of certain stress-
related disorders, such as headache, and increase a sense of well-being. For those who
develop chronic pain conditions, stress-relieving activities have been shown to improve
mood and daily function.
Respiratory system
The respiratory system supplies oxygen to cells and removes carbon dioxide waste from
the body. Air comes in through the nose and goes through the larynx in the throat, down
through the trachea, and into the lungs through the bronchi. The bronchioles then
transfer oxygen to red blood cells for circulation.
Stress and strong emotions can present with respiratory symptoms, such as shortness
of breath and rapid breathing, as the airway between the nose and the lungs constricts.
For people without respiratory disease, this is generally not a problem as the body can
manage the additional work to breathe comfortably, but psychological stressors can
exacerbate breathing problems for people with pre-existing respiratory diseases such
as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD; includes emphysema and
chronic bronchitis).
Some studies show that an acute stress—such as the death of a loved one—can actually
trigger asthma attacks. In addition, the rapid breathing—or hyperventilation—caused
by stress can bring on a panic attack in someone prone to panic attacks.
Working with a psychologist to develop relaxation, breathing, and other cognitive
behavioral strategies can help.
Cardiovascular system
The heart and blood vessels comprise the two elements of the cardiovascular system
that work together in providing nourishment and oxygen to the organs of the body. The
activity of these two elements is also coordinated in the body’s response to stress. Acute
stress—stress that is momentary or short-term such as meeting deadlines, being stuck
in traffic or suddenly slamming on the brakes to avoid an accident—causes an increase
in heart rate and stronger contractions of the heart muscle, with the stress hormones—
adrenaline, noradrenaline, and cortisol—acting as messengers for these effects.
In addition, the blood vessels that direct blood to the large muscles and the heart dilate,
thereby increasing the amount of blood pumped to these parts of the body and elevating
blood pressure. This is also known as the fight or flight response. Once the acute stress
episode has passed, the body returns to its normal state.
Chronic stress, or a constant stress experienced over a prolonged period of time, can
contribute to long-term problems for heart and blood vessels. The consistent and
ongoing increase in heart rate, and the elevated levels of stress hormones and of blood
pressure, can take a toll on the body. This long-term ongoing stress can increase the risk
for hypertension, heart attack, or stroke.
Repeated acute stress and persistent chronic stress may also contribute to
inflammation in the circulatory system, particularly in the coronary arteries, and this is
one pathway that is thought to tie stress to heart attack. It also appears that how a
person responds to stress can affect cholesterol levels.
The risk for heart disease associated with stress appears to differ for women, depending
on whether the woman is premenopausal or postmenopausal. Levels of estrogen in
premenopausal women appears to help blood vessels respond better during stress,
thereby helping their bodies to better handle stress and protecting them against heart
disease. Postmenopausal women lose this level of protection due to loss of estrogen,
therefore putting them at greater risk for the effects of stress on heart disease.

Endocrine system
When someone perceives a situation to be challenging, threatening, or uncontrollable,
the brain initiates a cascade of events involving the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis, which is the primary driver of the endocrine stress response. This ultimately
results in an increase in the production of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids,
which include cortisol, often referred to as the “stress hormone”.
The HPA axis
During times of stress, the hypothalamus, a collection of nuclei that connects the brain
and the endocrine system, signals the pituitary gland to produce a hormone, which in
turn signals the adrenal glands, located above the kidneys, to increase the production of
cortisol.
Cortisol increases the level of energy fuel available by mobilizing glucose and fatty acids
from the liver. Cortisol is normally produced in varying levels throughout the day,
typically increasing in concentration upon awakening and slowly declining throughout
the day, providing a daily cycle of energy.
During a stressful event, an increase in cortisol can provide the energy required to deal
with prolonged or extreme challenge.
Stress and health
Glucocorticoids, including cortisol, are important for regulating the immune system and
reducing inflammation. While this is valuable during stressful or threatening situations
where injury might result in increased immune system activation, chronic stress can
result in impaired communication between the immune system and the HPA axis.
This impaired communication has been linked to the future development of numerous
physical and mental health conditions, including chronic fatigue, metabolic disorders
(e.g., diabetes, obesity), depression, and immune disorders.

Gastrointestinal system
The gut has hundreds of millions of neurons which can function fairly independently
and are in constant communication with the brain—explaining the ability to feel
“butterflies” in the stomach. Stress can affect this brain-gut communication, and may
trigger pain, bloating, and other gut discomfort to be felt more easily. The gut is also
inhabited by millions of bacteria which can influence its health and the brain’s health,
which can impact the ability to think and affect emotions.
Stress is associated with changes in gut bacteria which in turn can influence mood.
Thus, the gut’s nerves and bacteria strongly influence the brain and vice versa.
Early life stress can change the development of the nervous system as well as how the
body reacts to stress. These changes can increase the risk for later gut diseases or
dysfunctioning.
Esophagus
When stressed, individuals may eat much more or much less than usual. More or
different foods, or an increase in the use of alcohol or tobacco, can result in heartburn or
acid reflux. Stress or exhaustion can also increase the severity of regularly occurring
heartburn pain. A rare case of spasms in the esophagus can be set off by intense stress
and can be easily mistaken for a heart attack.
Stress also may make swallowing foods difficult or increase the amount of air that is
swallowed, which increases burping, gassiness, and bloating.
Stomach
Stress may make pain, bloating, nausea, and other stomach discomfort felt more easily.
Vomiting may occur if the stress is severe enough. Furthermore, stress may cause an
unnecessary increase or decrease in appetite. Unhealthy diets may in turn deteriorate
one’s mood.
Contrary to popular belief, stress does not increase acid production in the stomach, nor
causes stomach ulcers. The latter are actually caused by a bacterial infection. When
stressed, ulcers may be more bothersome.
Bowel
Stress can also make pain, bloating, or discomfort felt more easily in the bowels. It can
affect how quickly food moves through the body, which can cause either diarrhea or
constipation. Furthermore, stress can induce muscle spasms in the bowel, which can be
painful.
Stress can affect digestion and what nutrients the intestines absorb. Gas production
related to nutrient absorption may increase.
The intestines have a tight barrier to protect the body from (most) food related bacteria.
Stress can make the intestinal barrier weaker and allow gut bacteria to enter the body.
Although most of these bacteria are easily taken care of by the immune system and do
not make us sick, the constant low need for inflammatory action can lead to chronic
mild symptoms.
Stress especially affects people with chronic bowel disorders, such as inflammatory
bowel disease or irritable bowel syndrome. This may be due to the gut nerves being
more sensitive, changes in gut microbiota, changes in how quickly food moves through
the gut, and/or changes in gut immune responses.
Nervous system
The nervous system has several divisions: the central division involving the brain and
spinal cord and the peripheral division consisting of the autonomic and somatic nervous
systems.
The autonomic nervous system has a direct role in physical response to stress and is
divided into the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), and the parasympathetic nervous
system (PNS). When the body is stressed, the SNS contributes to what is known as the
“fight or flight” response. The body shifts its energy resources toward fighting off a life
threat, or fleeing from an enemy.
The SNS signals the adrenal glands to release hormones called adrenalin (epinephrine)
and cortisol. These hormones, together with direct actions of autonomic nerves, cause
the heart to beat faster, respiration rate to increase, blood vessels in the arms and legs
to dilate, digestive process to change and glucose levels (sugar energy) in the
bloodstream to increase to deal with the emergency.
The SNS response is fairly sudden in order to prepare the body to respond to an
emergency situation or acute stress—short term stressors. Once the crisis is over, the
body usually returns to the pre-emergency, unstressed state. This recovery is facilitated
by the PNS, which generally has opposing effects to the SNS. But PNS over-activity can
also contribute to stress reactions, for example, by promoting bronchoconstriction (e.g.,
in asthma) or exaggerated vasodilation and compromised blood circulation.
Both the SNS and the PNS have powerful interactions with the immune system, which
can also modulate stress reactions. The central nervous system is particularly important
in triggering stress responses, as it regulates the autonomic nervous system and plays a
central role in interpreting contexts as potentially threatening.
Chronic stress, experiencing stressors over a prolonged period of time, can result in a
long-term drain on the body. As the autonomic nervous system continues to trigger
physical reactions, it causes a wear-and-tear on the body. It’s not so much what chronic
stress does to the nervous system, but what continuous activation of the nervous
system does to other bodily systems that become problematic.

Male reproductive system

The male reproductive system is influenced by the nervous system. The
parasympathetic part of the nervous system causes relaxation whereas the sympathetic
part causes arousal. In the male anatomy, the autonomic nervous system, also known as
the fight or flight response, produces testosterone and activates the sympathetic
nervous system which creates arousal.
Stress causes the body to release the hormone cortisol, which is produced by the
adrenal glands. Cortisol is important to blood pressure regulation and the normal
functioning of several body systems including cardiovascular, circulatory, and male
reproduction. Excess amounts of cortisol can affect the normal biochemical functioning
of the male reproductive system.
Sexual desire
Chronic stress, ongoing stress over an extended period of time, can affect testosterone
production resulting in a decline in sex drive or libido, and can even cause erectile
dysfunction or impotence.
Reproduction
Chronic stress can also negatively impact sperm production and maturation, causing
difficulties in couples who are trying to conceive. Researchers have found that men who
experienced two or more stressful life events in the past year had a lower percentage of
sperm motility (ability to swim) and a lower percentage of sperm of normal
morphology (size and shape), compared with men who did not experience any stressful
life events.
Diseases of the reproductive system
When stress affects the immune system, the body can become vulnerable to infection. In
the male anatomy, infections to the testes, prostate gland, and urethra, can affect normal
male reproductive functioning.
Female reproductive system
Menstruation
Stress may affect menstruation among adolescent girls and women in several ways. For
example, high levels of stress may be associated with absent or irregular menstrual
cycles, more painful periods, and changes in the length of cycles.
Sexual desire
Women juggle personal, family, professional, financial, and a broad range of other
demands across their life span. Stress, distraction, fatigue, etc., may reduce sexual
desire—especially when women are simultaneously caring for young children or other
ill family members, coping with chronic medical problems, feeling depressed,
experiencing relationship difficulties or abuse, dealing with work problems, etc.
Pregnancy
Stress can have significant impact on a woman’s reproductive plans. Stress can
negatively impact a woman’s ability to conceive, the health of her pregnancy, and her
postpartum adjustment. Depression is the leading complication of pregnancy and
postpartum adjustment.
Excess stress increases the likelihood of developing depression and anxiety during this
time. Maternal stress can negatively impact fetal and ongoing childhood development
and disrupt bonding with the baby in the weeks and months following delivery.
Premenstrual syndrome
Stress may make premenstrual symptoms worse or more difficult to cope with and
premenses symptoms may be stressful for many women. These symptoms include
cramping, fluid retention and bloating, negative mood (feeling irritable and “blue”) and
mood swings.
Menopause
As menopause approaches, hormone levels fluctuate rapidly. These changes are
associated with anxiety, mood swings, and feelings of distress. Thus menopause can be
a stressor in and of itself. Some of the physical changes associated with menopause,
especially hot flashes, can be difficult to cope with.
Furthermore, emotional distress may cause the physical symptoms to be worse. For
example, women who are more anxious may experience an increased number of hot
flashes and/or more severe or intense hot flashes.
Diseases of the reproductive system
When stress is high, there is increased chance of exacerbation of symptoms of
reproductive disease states, such as herpes simplex virus or polycystic ovarian
syndrome. The diagnosis and treatment of reproductive cancers can cause significant
stress, which warrants additional attention and support.

Stress and cognition

Stress can affect cognition in many ways, with the outcome (i.e., facilitating or
impairing) depending on a combination of factors related to both stress and the
cognitive function under study.
Among the factors identified as particularly relevant to define the cognitive effects of
stress are:
1) the intensity or magnitude of stress,
2) its origin (i.e., whether triggered by the task or externally), and
3)its duration (i.e., whether acute or chronically delivered).

At the cognitive end, the specific cognitive operation (e.g., implicit or explicit memory,
long-term or working memory, goal-directed or habit learning) and information
processing phases (e.g., learning, consolidation, and retrieval) are essential as well
to define stress effects.

The emerging view is that mild stress tends to facilitate cognitive function,
particularly in implicit memory or simple declarative tasks or when the cognitive load
is not excessive.
Exposure to high or very high stress acutely (whether elicited by the cognitive task or
experienced before being trained or tested in the task) or chronically impairs the
formation of explicit memories and, more generally, of those that require complex,
flexible reasoning (as typically observed for hippocampus- and prefrontal cortex-
related functions) while improving performance of implicit memory and well-
rehearsed tasks (as reported for amygdala-dependent conditioning tasks and for
striatum-related processes).

In addition to these general principles, there are important individual differences in

the cognitive impact of stress, with gender and age being particularly influencing
factors.

Stress and Cognition

Daily stressors can negatively impact cognitive functioning. Stress can cause structural
changes in the brain to areas important for cognition, particularly memory, such as the
amygdala, hippocampus, and other regions of the temporal lobe (Yaribeygi, Panahi, Sahraei,
Johnston, & Sahebkar, 2017). For example, stress and stress hormones can negatively impact
brain functioning, causing short term difficulties in focusing on and completing normally
simple cognitive tasks. Specifically, stress can negatively impact regions of the brain,
including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, as well as executive functions including
hand-eye coordination and spatial memory (for review see Wu & Yan, 2017). Stress can also
have long- term effects, such as accelerating cognitive decline across the lifespan in a number
of areas, including the ability to effectively manage attentional resources

The most prevalent theory suggests that stress may bias cognitive resources
towards dealing with the current stressor, thus limiting available resources for other
cognitive processes

Neurobiological underpinnings of the effects of stress on memory

The timing of stress has been argued to impact on how stress affects cognition

-Stress during encoding has been shown to facilitate learning and enhance
subsequent memory retrieval

- In contrast, stress immediately before retrieval is reported to impair memory

- In particular, psychosocial stress may particularly impact upon episodic

memory processes that are known to rely on the hippocampus

-Memory for emotional stimuli is typically better than memory for neutral stimuli
This phenomenon can be explained using the modulation model: emotional
memories are less likely to be forgotten than neutral memories as they are
associated with greater engagement of the amygdala at encoding (McGaugh, 2004).

-Secretion of stress-related hormones, such as cortisol, due to the arousal evoked

by emotional stimuli may further enhance this amygdala activation at encoding
-being moderately stressed can enhance memory formation for emotional
material and information that is related to the stressful context, whereas
stress may impair the encoding of stressor-unrelated material.

Attention:
Selective and sustained attention is critical for effective memory retrieval, in order
for individuals to recall specific information

These aspects of attention may however be negatively affected by stress

Some early studies have experimentally examined the effects of stress on cognition. Horowitz
and Becker (1971) hypothesized that negative and repetitive thoughts would increase as
stress increased. The study involved 30 female participants, whom were then separated into a
stress group or control group. The stress group was instructed to watch a film entitled
“Subincision”, which shows scenes involving bodily injuries, nudity, harassment, and
bleeding. The control group watched a non-stressful film entitled “The Runner” in which a
runner runs through his childhood home and reminiscences on his childhood. The film
involved humor and no stressful events. After having the participants watch the film, both the
stress group and control group self-reported their feelings and emotions. The results showed
that there was an increase in intrusive, negative thoughts after the subjects watched the
stressful film in comparison to the control group that watched the non-stressful film.
(Horowitz & Becker, 1971). An increase in intrusive thoughts assumes a decreased ability to
inhibit unwanted thoughts, which is a sign of impaired cognitive functioning. Inhibitory
control allows one to control’s one attention, as well as one’s thoughts and emotions
(Diamond, 2012).

Working memory:
working memory, a temporary storage that holds information for processing, has
been demonstrated to be negatively influenced by stress

Working memory

Baddeley's model of working memory

Working memory (WM), similar to STM, is the ability to temporarily store information in order to
manipulate it for performing complex tasks, such as reasoning. WM is affected to a greater
extent by stress than Long-term memory.[33] Stress has been shown to both improve and impair
WM. In a study by Duncko et al., the positive effect of stress manifested itself as a
decreased reaction time in participants, while the negative effect of stress causes more false
alarms and mistakes when compared to a normal condition.[34] The researchers hypothesize that
this could be representative of faster information processing, something helpful in a threatening
situation. Anxiety has also been shown to adversely affect some of the components of WM,
those being the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the central executive.[35] The
phonological loop is used for auditory STM, the visuo-spatial sketchpad is used
for visual and spatial STM, and the central executive links and controls these systems.[32] The
disruption of these components impairs the transfer of information from WM to LTM, thus
affecting learning. For instance, several studies have demonstrated that acute stress can impair
working memory processing likely though reduced neural activity in the prefrontal cortex in both
monkeys and humans.[

The effects of stress on memory include interference with a person's capacity

to encode memory and the ability to retrieve information.[1][2] Stimuli, like stress, improved
memory when it was related to learning the subject.[3] During times of stress, the body reacts by
secreting stress hormones into the bloodstream. Stress can cause acute and chronic changes in
certain brain areas which can cause long-term damage.[4] Over-secretion of stress hormones
most frequently impairs long-term delayed recall memory, but can enhance short-term,
immediate recall memory. This enhancement is particularly relative in emotional memory. In
particular, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and the amygdala are affected.[5][6] One class of
stress hormone responsible for negatively affecting long-term, delayed recall memory is
the glucocorticoids (GCs), the most notable of which is cortisol.[1][6][7] Glucocorticoids facilitate and
impair the actions of stress in the brain memory process.[8] Cortisol is a known biomarker for
stress.[9] Under normal circumstances, the hippocampus regulates the production of cortisol
through negative feedback because it has many receptors that are sensitive to these stress
hormones. However, an excess of cortisol can impair the ability of the hippocampus to both
encode and recall memories.[2]These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from
receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to surrounding muscles.[2]

Behavioural responses
Behavioural responses to stress are evoked from some underlying complex physiological
changes that arise consequently from stress.[15]

Impairment of response inhibition and lack of motivation[edit]

Real or perceived threat in the environment elicits stress response in animals, which disrupts
internal homeostasis.[2] Physiological changes cause behavioural responses in animals,
including: impairment of response inhibition and lack of motivation,[
Decreased motivation was also seen in a study conducted by Beery and Kaufer, where they
explained that stressed rodents are less likely to be motivated to interact with one another.[9]

Change in social behaviours[edit]

Beery and Kaufer noted that social withdrawal and general reduction in social interaction after an
exposure to a stressor are evident in rodents. They argue that this is due to the underlying
physiological changes that the rodent goes through in response to stress. For instance, the
changes that occur to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) hormonal axis is directly related
to the changes in social behaviour. Social avoidance is another consequence of stress that can
be seen in rodents. Rodents are more likely to avoid dominant rats and avoid social interactions
amongst each other after the exposure to a stressor.[9]

Sexual behaviours[edit]
Sexual interests change in many species when exposed to stressors. For instance, stressed
male and female rats express inhibited mating behaviour, which is evident through the clear
increase in the inhibitory hormone RF-amide.[9] Another study suggests that masculine sexual
behaviour in male rats is subject to changes in accordance to the type of stressors that the rats
were subjected to.[9] The female zebra finch's mating choice is determined by the stressors that
they are exposed to early in life, which remain consistent throughout adulthood.[4] A study about
stress effects on female songbird’s response to sexual signal for mating indicated that the
response to this specific signal can be impaired if the female is exposed to developmental stress.
Behavioural changes as a result from developmental stress impairs neural responses to sexual
signals, which reduces mating.[5]

Aggressive behaviours and anti-predator responses[edit]

Stressed animals would choose to avoid a novel situation rather than confront it. Aggressive
behaviour is associated with sex hormones, such as testosterone, and specific brain regions and
systems, such as the medial preoptic nucleus, prefrontal cortex-dependent response inhibition,
and anterior hypothalamus. Stress negatively impacts sex hormones, which results in an
imbalance and reduction in aggression related hormones and function. Also, chronic stress
results in prefrontal cortex-dependent response inhibition. This results in reduction in aggression,
thus promoting anti-predator responses.[16][10]

Prolonged stress reduces parental behaviour toward offspring[edit]

Prolonged stress alters parental behaviour toward offspring and promotes parental neglect.
According to a study performed by Tilgar and associates, predation stress alters parents’
behaviours, such as the reduction in provisioning rates, which negatively impacts the offspring’s
performance.[8] The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin are generally responsible for affiliative
and pair-bonding behaviours in many species. Stress alters the level of both hormones, resulting
in an abnormal behaviour from parents towards offspring. For instance, levels of oxytocin
decrease as a result of prolonged stress, which has been shown to reduce pair-bonding
behaviour and increase withdrawal behaviour. Prolactin is another important hormone that is
associated with nurture by parents to offspring, and levels of this hormone can be altered as a
result of stress. Reduced levels of prolactin as a result of stress decreases behaviours such as
suckling, licking, and brooding.[16]

Mental and Emotional Impact of Stress

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Researchers in the field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) study the ways in which the immune
system and the nervous system communicate with each other and impact people's mental and
emotional health. Even though the field is relatively new, many studies have been designed to
examine the influence of immune and nervous systems on the psychological consequences of
stress. PNI research suggests that chronic stress can lead to or exacerbate mood disorders such
as depression and anxiety, bipolar disorder, cognitive (thinking) problems, personality changes,
and problem behaviors.
Stress and Depression
Byproducts of stress hormones can act as sedatives (chemical substances which cause us to
become calm or fatigued). When such hormone byproducts occur in large amounts (which will
happen under conditions of chronic stress), they may contribute to a sustained feeling of low
energy or depression. Habitual patterns of thought which influence appraisal and increase the
likelihood that a person will experience stress as negative (such as low self-efficacy, or a
conviction that you are incapable of managing stress) can also increase the likelihood that a
person will become depressed.

It is normal to experience a range of moods, both high and low, in everyday life. While some
"down in the dumps" feelings are a part of life, sometimes, people fall into depressing feelings
that persist and start interfering with their ability to complete daily activities, hold a job, and enjoy
successful interpersonal relationships. The term Major Depression is used to describe such
periods of extended, unremitting and profound depression. Symptoms of Major Depression may
include: sleep problems; fatigue; appetite changes; feelings of worthlessness, self-hate, and
guilt; an inability to concentrate or make decisions; agitation, restlessness, and irritability;
withdrawal from typical pleasurable activities; and feelings of hopelessness and helplessness.
Depression is also associated with an increase in suicidal thinking and suicidal actions, and may
make a person more vulnerable to developing other mental disorders. For more information
about Major Depression, please see our Major Depression topic center. Additional information
about Suicide can be found in our Suicide Topic Center.

Stress and Bipolar Disorder

Chronic and/or severe stress can also negatively affect people with Bipolar Disorder. This illness,
also known as manic depression or bipolar affective disorder, involves dramatic shifts in mood,
energy level, and behavior from the highs of mania (one pole) to the lows of major depression
(the opposite pole).

Mania is characterized by a euphoric (joyful, energetic) mood, hyper-activity, a positive,

expansive outlook on life, an inflated sense of self-esteem, and a sense that most anything is
possible. When in a manic state, individuals with bipolar disorder tend to experience a decreased
need for sleep, racing thoughts, rapid speech (wherein the words won't come out fast enough to
keep up with their racing thoughts) and heightened distractibility. Manic individuals typically show
poor judgment and impulsivity, and are prone to engaging in risky or dangerous behaviors and
activities.

Individuals with Bipolar Disorder shift from ("cycle" is the term used by mental health
professionals) Mania to the symptoms of Major Depression, which we described above. Bipolar
individuals who are in a depressed state often lose interest in things that used to give them
pleasure; develop sleep problems; constantly feel tired and fatigued; and have distressed,
negative, and unhappy moods, irritability, a short temper, and/or agitation. In addition, anger,
guilt, failure and hopeless feelings may be experienced.

People with Bipolar Disorder cycle between manic and depressed mood states over the course
of days, weeks, or months. This mood cycling disrupts everyday functioning; affecting energy,
activity levels, judgment, and behavior. Stress can trigger either a depressive or manic mood
state in someone with a genetic vulnerability to Bipolar Disorder. Stress can also worsen a
Bipolar mood episode once it has begun, increasing it's intensity and/or extending it's duration
across time. For more information about Bipolar Disorder, please see our related topic center.

Stress and Anxiety Disorders

Some people who are stressed may show relatively mild outward signs of anxiety, such as
fidgeting, biting their fingernails, tapping their feet, etc. In other people, chronic activation of
stress hormones can contribute to severe feelings of anxiety (e.g., racing heartbeat, nausea,
sweaty palms, etc.), feelings of helplessness and a sense of impending doom. Thought patterns
that lead to stress (and depression, as described above) can also leave people vulnerable to
intense anxiety feelings. Ready to prioritize your mental health? Begin with our free anxiety test.

Anxiety or dread feelings that persist for an extended period of time; which cause people to worry
excessively about upcoming situations (or potential situations); which lead to avoidance; and
cause people to have difficulty coping with everyday situations may be symptoms of one or more
Anxiety Disorders. Anxiety Disorders (such as Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Post traumatic
Stress Disorder or Panic Disorder) are one of the most commonly diagnosed mental disorders
today. You can read more about the Anxiety Disorders by visiting our Anxiety Disorders Topic
Center. Specialized Information on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder appears here.

Interpersonal Stress

Difficult situations dealing with other people (communication, relationship, etc.)

(Interpersonal) may become a stressor when it is perceived as a threat to one’s well-
being or position in life.

Kato [8] defined interpersonal stressors as “stressful episodes

between two or more people that involve quarrels, arguments,
negative attitudes or behavior, an uncomfortable atmosphere during a
conversation or activity, and concern about hurting others’ feelings”
Explanation:
The situations that become stressors vary from person to person. While some things
tend to stress many people—job demands, relationship conflicts, a hectic schedule—not
every potential stressor causes stress in everyone. Everyone has a unique set of
understanding of the world around them and ways of perceiving things. What seems
like a threat to one person may be perceived as a challenge to another. So you really
can't generalize what situations are stressors.

Adolescence and Interpersonal stress

Relatedly, three lines of research suggest that interpersonal life stress
may be especially relevant for understanding risk for depression in
adolescent girls. First, adolescent girls have been found to experience
more interpersonal stressors than both preadolescent girls and
adolescent boys (Hankin et al., 2007). Second, adolescent girls exhibit
greater investment in intimate peer relationships and sensitivity to
relational conflict than adolescent boys (Larson, 2001; Rudolph,
2002). Finally, adolescent girls show greater neural sensitivity to
negative social information than adolescent boys (Guyer et al.,
2009; Somerville, 2013).
Interpersonal Stress and Work

The book describes interpersonal stress as that which stems from

difficulties in forming and maintaining relationships with others in the
workplace (Riggio, 2013). Examples of this can include having a boss
who is extremely critical and disapproving, or putting two coworkers in a
conflict situation in which they have to compete against each other for a
promotion.
Emotional labor is another common type of interpersonal stress that
often manifests in jobs that are heavily service oriented. When striving to
provide excellent customer service, it can be taxing to handle difficult
customers and maintain a good attitude. When these conflicts and
interpersonal stress arise, they can have drastic effects on the
organization. Workers may become cynical and discontent with their
jobs, resulting in absenteeism, turnover and reduced job performance
and satisfaction. Given that interpersonal conflict is one of the greatest
sources of worker stress, it is important for companies to take initiatives
to maintain workplace relationships.

Additional notes can be made from:

https://prezi.com/p/egrgajo0ggbs/obhr-interpersonal-stressors/

Type of stressors: Internal stressors and External

stressors
Stressors are the things that cause stress. They can be divided into two
categories: internal and external.
Internal Stressors
Sources of Internal stress:
Internal stressors, such as a physical illness or injury, come from within the
body.
In addition, the individual’s emotions, thoughts, and beliefs can also trigger
internal stressors.
Internal stressors include chronic pain, tension headaches, depression,
anxiety and panic attacks.

These stressors come from within the individual, such as fear, worry, and
negative thoughts. It is important to recognize these stressors and work on
managing them to reduce their negative impact.
Internal stressors are everyday events that affect our emotions and mental
states. These can include worrying about money, dealing with a difficult job,
or relationship issues. The key here is that the stressor originates within our
minds and bodies. Internal stressors can trigger physical and psychological
responses, such as increased heart rate or feeling overwhelmed.
Examples of internal stressors include:
• Self-doubt: Feeling inadequate or having doubts about one’s abilities.
• Perfectionism: Placing unrealistic expectations on oneself and feeling
like anything less than perfect is unacceptable.
• Lack of motivation: Feeling unmotivated and struggling to complete
tasks.
• Procrastination: Putting off tasks to avoid dealing with them.
• Worrying: Unchecked worries and anxious thoughts that can lead to
stress.
• Negative self-talk: Criticizing oneself and engaging in negative self-talk.
• Low self-esteem: Having a low opinion of oneself and feeling
undeserving.

External Stressors
External stressors come from outside sources, such as work deadlines,
financial worries, or relationship problems. External stressors can also
include environmental factors like noise pollution, air pollution, or
overcrowding. Traumatic events such as war, natural disasters, or physical
abuse can also be considered external stressors.

These are environmental stressors, such as a job, family life, or a traumatic

event. Other external stressors include loud noises, bright lights, or routine
changes.
External stressors come from outside of us and can often be more
challenging to cope with than internal ones. These can include anything
from traumatic events such as natural disasters to life experiences like the
death of a loved one. While it can be difficult to cope with external
stressors, there are things that you can do to help manage your stress
levels. Talking to friends and family, reaching out for professional guidance,
and taking time for yourself are great ways to manage external stressors.
Examples of external stressors include:
• Work/school demands: Meeting deadlines, dealing with difficult
coworkers, overworking.
• Health issues: Chronic health conditions, pain, physical disability.
• Financial worries: Lack of money, debt, job insecurity.
• Family problems: Conflict with family members, divorce/separation,
grief.
• Relationship conflicts: Difficulties with intimate relationships and
arguments with friends.
• Environmental changes: Moving house, changing jobs, starting a new
hobby.

Internal stressors vs External stressors:

Internal stressors External stressors
Thoughts Physical environment
Feelings Interpersonal relationships
Behaviors Life changes
Physiological reactions Uncontrollable events
 Internal stressors External stressors
Beliefs Time pressures
Attitudes Economic pressures
Values Natural disasters
Expectations Social expectations
Perceptions Trauma or abuse
Assumptions Poverty or illness
Internal stressors originate from within ourselves, such as our thoughts and
feelings. External stressors arise from events or experiences outside of us,
such as changes in the physical environment or the actions of people we
interact with. Both can affect our mental and physical health, so it’s
essential to be aware of both stressors and develop healthy coping
strategies.