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ECOLOGY LAWS OF ECOLOGY BY BARRY COMMONER

According to Ernst Haeckel (1866), it is the the body 1. Everything is connected to everything else
of knowledge concerning the economy of nature– the - Reflects the existence of the elaborate network
investigation of the total relations of the animal both to of connection in the ecosphere; among
its inorganic and organic; including above all, its different living organisms, and between
friendly and inimical relations with those animals and populations, species, and individual organisms
plants which it comes directly or indirectly into and their physicochemical surroundings.
contact– in a word, ecology is the study of all those Literally everything is connected to everything
complex interrelationships referred to by Darwin as the else.
conditions of the struggles for existence. - Every species has its purpose, necessary for
the environment. Purpose in ecology is
Dialectical Materialism by Karl Marx - the referred to as “niche” - kinda like the
antagonistic relationship between forces which drives profession/role of a species in their
the occurrence of historical events. Similar to Darwin’s environment.
concept [of evolution]. - In ecosystems, when one thing is missing or
not functioning as it normally would, everything
Environment - Everything, abiotic or biotic else would be negatively affected.
components, that affects an organism during its - Examples are: 1.) Human beings rely on the
lifetime. environment for survival, while animals rely on
humans too. 2.) In an ocean ecosystem, if
Biotic Components - biological organisms and their phytoplanktons (performing photosynthesis,
interaction with each other eaten by the fishes) are gone, fishes would
have nothing to eat. Their population will
Abiotic Components - physical environment such as decrease and larger marine animals will go
weather, climate, availability of energy, minerals, through the same. 3.) Forest is defined by the
water, air, salinity, sunlight, soil, atoms, molecules type of soil present, temperature, and
precipitation it receives every year as this
dictates what type of plant community will be
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN ECOLOGY
able to survive in that environment. 4.)
1. Individual - organism, simpleset basic unit in Distribution of plastic in the environment
ecology (microplastics -> algae -> fishes -> humans)
2. Population - composed of several organisms - Bioaccumulation - when toxic elements, like
(individuals from the same species) plastic and mercury, are taken in by resources
3. Community - different populations coexisting in humans eat
a particular place 2. Everything must go somewhere
4. Ecosystem - combination of communities and - This is simply a somewhat informal
of abiotic and biotic components within well reinstatement of a basic law of physics– that
defined boundaries matter is indestructible. Applied to ecology, the
5. Biome - accumulation of different ecosystems law emphasizes that in nature there is no such
of similar structures, climax communities with thing as “waste”
wide geographical distributions - Nothing “goes away”; it is simply transferred
6. Biosphere - combination of all ecosystems in place to place, converted from one molecule to
the planet another, acting on the life processes of an

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organism in which it becomes, for a time, neighboring plants through the release of
lodged. secondary compounds.
- Example #1: Energy pyramid - sun -> plants - Example #2 - Caves. Tourists change the
-> secondary consumers -> 3rd level energy flow inside the cave ecosystem.
consumers (10% Law by Lindemann is [Further explanation in the recording 1, 30:37]
applied) 4. There is no such thing as a free lunch
- 10% Law by Lindemann - only 10% of 100% - In ecology, as in economics, the law is
energy can be transferred to the next trophic intended to warn that every gain is won at
level, other 90% is loss as heat during cell some cost. Because the global system is a
respiration connected whole, in which nothing can be
- Example #2: Phosphorus cycle - phosphorus gained or lost and which is not subject to
are mines, used as soil fertilizers but the overall improvement, anything extracted from it
run-offs of this mining activity goes to bodies of by human effort must be replaced. Payment of
water such as lakes. This results in this price cannot be avoided, it can only be
eutrophication of the lake -> algae blooms -> delayed.
fish deaths (due to depletion of oxygen) - Example #1: Mining - can cause soil erosion
- Eutrophication - when the environment resulting in the landslide.
becomes enriched with nutrients. - Example #2: Deforestation - affects human
3. Nature knows best health: organisms lose their habitat which
- Any major man-made change in a natural results in proliferation of invasive species such
system is likely to be detrimental to that as malaria mosquitoes from anopheles
system [even when done after years of species. Because of deforestation, organisms
research] that regulate the population of anopheles
- Example #1: Bilar Man-Made Mahogany moved away because they don’t have a habitat
Forest - considered a biodiversity deadzone anymore. As a results, there’ll be a high
because mahogany isn’t naturally present in malaria transmission in that location. Same
the country (exotic), it has no natural with dengue transmission (more breeding
organisms that will regulate its growth. It sites, more mosquitoes).
became an “invasive specie” dahil wala siyang 5. Everything has its limits (addition of
competitor, naging exponential ang kanyang contemporary ecologists)
growth. Mahogany is invasive because of its - Law of Limiting Factors - a specific factor
fruit production, per tree it bears 60 fruits and (absence or presence) that restricts the
each contains 60+ seeds. When seeds are success of species
released, it forms matting in the soil. Our native - Categories:
organisms can’t germinate because they have ● Availability of raw materials
no access to the soil. Mahogany’s leaves also ● Availability of energy
have high tannin concentration so when they’re ● Production and disposal of waste
released,it results in the acidification of the soil products
na hindi gusto ng native plants pero conducive ● Interaction between organisms
para sa growth ng mahogany. Mahogany is - Example #1: Preference of adult monarchs to
also allelopathic (discouraging the growth of lay eggs on milkweed. If you remove milkweed,
other plants, according to research). caterpillars will have no food therefore
- Allelopathy - the effects (stimulatory and monarch butterfly population will decrease.
inhibitory) of a plant on the development of

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- Principle of Tolerance -
LIMITING FACTORS
- Biotic Potential - the maximum number of
individuals that can be produced by the
particular species.
- Environmental Carrying Capacity - the
maximum amount of individuals that the
environment can sustain/support
- Logistic Growth - happens due to presence of
limiting factors

SURVIVORSHIP CURVE
- Reflective of reproductive strategies (Table 6.1)
Type 1 (K-selected species) - High population rate
until old age. Aging causes the population to dwindle
(humans)
Type 2 - constant mortality rate to population (lizards,
salamanders)
Type 3 (R-selected species) - initially, madaming
offspring. But as time goes by, tumataas ang mortality.
Konti lang sa offsprings ang nagsussurvive (insects)
- Density-dependent limiting factors - factors
that influence a population in proportion to its
size; slows the rate of population growth by
increasing the rate of mortality, decreasing the
rate of fenducity (rate of reproduction), or both
- Logistic growth is density-dependent
- Usually happens when environmental carrying
capacity is reached
- Density-dependent Limiting Factors -
factors that affects the population regardless of
the population density
- Examples are natural calamities (earthquake,
tsunami) and climate change
- Law of the Minimum - states that the growth
of the organism is dependent on the least
available resources; the yield will be affected
by the resource that’s scarce or absent.

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and oxygen. Energy is transformed in chemical

structure but quantity remains the same.
2. The ability of energy to do work diminishes
- as energy is transformed or transferred, some
useful energy is lost (part of energy assumes a
form that cannot pass on any further). Entropy
(disorder and randomness) increases within
natural systems. The quantity of energy
remains the same, but its ability to do work
diminishes (energy quality)
- Example #1: Burning Wood - potential
ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS energy is released. Heat that dissipates is not
- imagine that energy is closely tied with matter. Matter useful anymore, it's been released in the
is the source of energy. Organisms break down matter environment.
to produce heat/obtain energy. - Example #2: Photosynthesis - not all
- the ability to do work (done when an object is moved products of the process are usable. Only
over a distance [displacement])(moving a chair) glucose is usable by plants, oxygen is
● Potential Energy - stored energy, not yet considered as waste.
released (frozen iceberg)
● Kinetic Energy - contained by moving objects ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS
(melting iceberg) OF ENERGY FLOW
● Entropy increases - disorder in the system.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS - Example #1: Ozone depletion. Depletion of
(applicable in biology too) the layer of ozone in the stratosphere that can
1. Energy is conserved - Energy is neither absorb UV rays from the sun, therefore
created nor destroyed. It may change form, protecting the earth. When CFC
pass from one place to another, or act on (chlorofluorocarbons) in the environment
matter in various ways. Regardless of what becomes exposed in the UV rays -> UV Rays
transfers and transformations take place, will induce the excitation of the electrons ->
however, no gain or loss in total energy occurs. breaking of bonds and chlorine (“free radical”
Energy is simply transferred from one form or bc highly reactive) atom will be free -> chlorine
place to another. exposed to ozone (O3) -> ozone will break
- Example #1: Burning of wood - Because of bonds to bond with chlorine -> domino effect
the chemical changes introduced during - Example #2: Bedroom - after maglinis,
burning of wood, we obtain exothermic release maayos. Pero as time goes by, gumugulo.
of potential energy from the wood. It may be ● Energy quality -
reduced to ashes but the energy remains the - Example #1: power plants - electrical energy
same. A part of energy dissipates as heat, is a very useful energy because it serves many
released due to combustion. functions. Usually electrical energy is from
- Example #2: Photosynthesis - endothermic coal. The coal will heat water to produce steam
process. Plants obtain energy from the sun para may turbine and then that kinetic energy
and water to convert carbon dioxide to glucose will transform to electrical energy (high quality
- energy)
-
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- Example #2: Ocean - stores high energy

compared to power plants but the energy isn’t
as high quality as coal plants, water dams,
solar winds.
● Biological Systems and Thermodynamics -
flow of energy and ecosystems. Pyramids of
numbers - movement of energy to one trophic
to another, merong energy na nadidissipate as
heat– this is the contribution of biological
systems to entropy.
● Pollution and Thermodynamics

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

Secondary Productivity - generation of biomass by
heterotrophs (such as caterpillars eating leaves,
humans); not all energy is assimilated

Primary Productivity - productivity in ecosystems

means the generation of biomass by organisms (such
as plants- autotrophs)
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) - total amount of
solar energy that the producers in an ecosystem
capture via photosynthesis over a given amount of
time
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) - establishes the
rate at which biomass is produced over a given
amount of time

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TROPHIC STRUCTURE

Food chains - show feeding relationships across

groups (trophic levels)and the flow or direction of ECOLOGICAL NICHE CONCEPT
energy - Dynamics of biotic and abiotic components
- The range of conditions under which a species can
persist + Array of essential resources an organism
consumes or uses = species’ role in the ecosystem

REEF (?) ECOSYSTEMS - composed of corals

(animals, composed of a colony of polyps of the same
species) and fishes. They have a
symbiotic/mutualistic relationship. Corals provide the
protection fishes need to develop until maturity. Polyps
have unicellular organisms living in them and they
have function in photosynthesis (para magkafood ang
coral) and are responsible for the skeleton of the
corals (calcium carbonate skeleton). Those set of
interactions between coral and other marine species
and their environment is the corals’ niche (role,
profession)

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Habitat - place or set of environmental conditions in difference in the seeds, there will be trees who’d grow
which a particular organism lives. (Principle of slower. As other trees outgrow slow-growers, the
Tolerance) access of slow-growers to the sunlight becomes
- The prominent physical or biological features of its limited. So hindi na sila maggrow and ultimately, they
environment such as soil type, availability of water, will die.
climatic conditions, or predominant plant species that
exist in that area.
INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION
- Example #1: Mosses - nonvascular plants. Thrives
in forest shades, where there’s high humidity. - occurs in between different species (ex. of realized
Temperature, sensitive to [inaudible]. niche)
- Example #2: Racing of Lion and Vultures to
carcass of Zebra - different species competing for the
FUNDAMENTAL NICHE same resource
- the combination of abiotic conditions in a particular - because of competition, there’s zonation and
environment fundamentally determines whether a exclusion principle (no two species who inhabit the
specie can persist there same area or take the same resources can coexist in
- potential responses in the absence of species that particular area)
interactions

REALIZED NICHE
- the range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which
a species actually lives
- the species potential responses as modified by their
interaction with other species present
- not only habitat where organisms will automatically
flourish, also need interactions with other organisms
which decrease to optimal range. Survival rate is
modified by interactions with other organisms.
- Example #1: Barnacles in intertidal zone.
Chthamalus are more tolerant of harsh conditions in
intertidal zones that’s why they can stay there.
SPECIES INTERACTION (Positive)
Balanus can’t. Chthamalus can’t live in the lower
intertidal zone because the Balanus, as a competition, - one or both benefit from the relationship/interaction
limits it. 1. Commensalism - one individual benefits from the
relation while the other one isn’t affected at all (+,0
Intertidal zone -area being affected by high and low relationship)
tide. - Example #1 - Phoresy - mites attack beetles
but don't eat them. Mites just need the beetles
to transport them to another location, the
INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION beetles just proceeds with their life normally.
- occurs within the population 2. Mutualism - both individuals benefits from the
- Example #1: Pine Forest - initially, they all grow at relationship (+, + relationship)
the same rate. But when you factor in the genetic - Example #1 - mites and humans. Mites exist
in our skin (eyelashes). Mites play a role in
segregation of dead skin cells that results in
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follicles that develop pimples. Kung wala sila

may pimples tayo!

SPECIES INTERACTION (Negative)

3. Parasitism (Negative) - one or both is affected

negatively
- Example #1: Rafflesia Flower - exists as a
flower only, non-vascular, no roots, no leaves.
Dependent on host plants, typically grapevines, for
nutrition. As a result, may competition ang host plants
sa nutrients. Rafflesia blooms in Makiling during April.
4. Predation - one organism eats the other
(predator-prey)(+, - relationship)

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
- sequence of community development in a particular
area.
Example #1: Scientific Experiment
- Blue - Ulva species: first inhabitant of the
concrete blocks (pioneering species). As time
goes by other organisms may begin to develop
Climax communities- not easily disturbed, most
stable communities

Primary Succession - occurs in areas where no

organisms exist (Vid 3, 25:00)

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Secondary Succession - occurs when a community

is previously exposed to disturbance (forest fire)