1. Classification: Five kingdoms - Prokaryotes/Monera (Bacteria) (Prokaryote, all unicellular) - Protist (Eukaryote, mostly unicellular) - Fungi (Eukaryote, mostly multicellular, yeast-unicellular) - Plants (Eukaryote, All multicellular) - Animals (Eukaryote, All multicellular) Difference between prokaryotes (DNA not in nucleus) and eukaryotes (DNA held in nucleus) Difference between unicellular (one cell only) and multicellular (made of many cells) Difference between vertebrates (contains backbone) and invertebrate (no backbone) animals Classes of arthropods (crustaceans, arachnids, insects, myriapods) Classes of vertebrates (birds, reptiles, mammals, amphibians, fishes) - Classification of fishes *See Appendix 1
2. Ecological studies Types of sampling methods and how to use them - Quadrat - Transects (line/ belt) - Mark/release/recapture method - Pooter - Pitfall trap - Tullgren funnel - Nets, jars, bottles Methods used for mobile vs stationary organisms - Stationary: Quadrat and Transects - Mobile: Mark/release/recapture, pooter, pitfall traps, tullgren funnel, nets, jars, bottles Method used for transitional zones such as shore, rocky cliff, edge of forest/savannah (Line/belt transects) Difference between species richness vs abundance - Richness: (the number of different species in an area) - Abundance: (the number of individuals per species).
*See Appendix 2
3. Ecology Habitat vs niche - Habitat: (the place where a particular organism lives) - Niche: (the role of an organism in an ecosystem) Biotic vs abiotic - Biotic: living organisms and interrelationships (competition, predation, diseases) - Abiotic: non-living chemical and physical components of environment Definition of a species - A group of individuals of common ancestry that closely resemble each other and are capable of interbreeding to produce a viable, fertile offspring. Population vs community - Population: (members of a particular species living in a particular habitat) - Community: (all the populations of different species found living in a particular habitat) Definition of an ecosystem - A community of living organisms sharing an environment. Importance of soil - Soil is a mixture of minerals, air, water, and organic matter (dead plants and animals). - Soil also contains living organisms (plant roots, small animals and microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi). - Soil not only provides a habitat for plant and animals but also supplies these organisms with water, oxygen, and mineral nutrients Water retention capacity of soil - Place soil in funnel - Pour a known volume of water into soil - Measure volume of water collected - Minus the volume of water collected from the volume of water poured - This tells us the volume of water held by the soil
Ms.F.Ramnarine SECTION A: STUDY GUIDE
4. Food chains/ webs/ecological pyramids
Definition of food chains/ web
- Food chain: A food chain is a linear series/sequence of organisms that shows how food/energy is passed from one organism to the next in an ecosystem - Food web: An interconnected network of food chains. Role of producers in food chains - Convert solar/light energy to chemical energy - Make their own food - Produce oxygen - Make energy available to other organisms - Provide habitat or shelter for other organisms Why food chains rarely contain more that five tropic levels. - Only 10% of energy is transferred from one organism to the next in a food chain - This means, 90% of the energy is lost as heat during respiration to facilitate essential life processes such as movement, reproduction, excretion or growth and repair. - As a result of this, there is not enough energy remaining to support another trophic level or a large number of organisms Trophic levels (producer, primary, secondary, tertiary consumer) How to construct a food web The direction of the arrow in food chains/webs - Arrows point to the consumer - Role of organism to which arrow is pointing is to eat the organism before it or act as a source of food for the organism after it What are phytoplankton and zooplankton - Phytoplankton: Phytoplankton are primary producers of the ocean. They are mostly microscopic, single-celled photosynthetic organisms that live suspended in water. - Zooplankton: are small, free-floating aquatic microorganisms including crustaceans, rotifers, open water insect larvae, and aquatic mites. They feed on phytoplankton How to construct an ecological pyramid Difference between herbivore, carnivore and omnivore - Herbivore: eats plants only - Carnivore: eats animals only - Omnivore: eats both plants and animals Role of decomposers (Bacteria,fungi) - During respiration they release CO2 that can be used by plants during photosynthesis. - Recycle and release nutrients back into soil for plants - Fix nitrogen for plants - Prevents build-up/accumulation of dead organic matter
5. Interrelationships between living organisms
Characteristics of predators and prey - Predators: Fast, highly developed senses (sight, smell), sharp and piercing mouthparts/claws, poisonous/venomous - Prey: Fast, highly developed senses, camouflage, poisonous/venomous, protective body coverings (hard shells, scales, spines) Biological control
- As predator population increases, they eat more prey causing prey population to decrease - As prey population decreases, there is less food for predators, so predators die causing predator population to increase - As predator population decreases, prey is eaten less, causing prey population to increase. - As prey population increases, there is more food for predators, to predator population increases What plants and animals compete for - Plants: Light, space, water, nutrients - Animals: Food, water, mates, territory
Difference between commensalism, mutualism and parasitism
- Commensalism: Organism 1 benefits, Organism 2 is NOT harmed and does not benefit - Mutualism: Both benefits - Parasitism: Organism 1 benefits, Organism 2 IS harmed
*See appendix 3
Ms.F.Ramnarine SECTION A: STUDY GUIDE
6. Human impact on the environment
Carbon cycle
Respiration Death Fossilization
Human activities that affect the carbon cycle
- Combustion of fossil fuels in: Factories/industries Transportation sector (cars, airplanes) For electricity generation - Deforestation - Burning of garbage or materials containing carbon. - Industrialization - Slash/burn agriculture - Smoking
Link between deforestation and carbon cycle
Deforestation affect carbon cycle in two ways: - Trees absorb carbon dioxide, so when trees are cut down, less carbon dioxide is absorbed, leading to an accumulation of carbon dioxide in atmosphere - Trees contain stored carbon, so when trees are burnt in air containing oxygen, the stored carbon combines with the oxygen to form carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide is released, leading to an accumulation of carbon dioxide in atmosphere
Human activities that can reduce impact on the carbon cycle
- Use of renewable sources of energy (solar, wind, biogas) - Using electric/hybrid vehicles - Turning off lights or TV when not in use - Reforestation/Planting more trees - Not burning garbage - Using environmentally friendly ways of clearing land for agriculture - Adhering to good practices through laws/legislation/penalties/fines
Link between carbon cycle, greenhouse effect, global warming, and climate change - Carbon dioxide along with other gases form a layer of gas around the earth that keep earth warm (greenhouse effect) - Human activities are adding more greenhouse gases to atmosphere that is causing layer to become thicker (enhanced greenhouse effect) - A thicker layer traps more heat, making earth warmer which causes an increase in global temperatures (global warming) - As global temperatures increase, it causes a long-term change in the average weather and climate patterns (climate change)
Examples of greenhouse gases
- methane - nitrous oxide - water vapour - CFCs - ozone (O3) How climate change can affect the Caribbean islands - Rising sea levels contributing to frequent flooding and destruction of costal ecosystems/beach erosion - loss of habitable land due to coastal flooding/erosion - Reduced agricultural productivity caused by prolonged drought conditions or prolonged flooding. - Prolonged high temperatures and rainfall may increase mosquito breeding and hence increase transmission of mosquito-borne diseases, such as dengue fever and malaria. - Increased temperatures can cause coral bleaching with can kill coral reefs - Ocean acidification can lead to death of marine organisms which can cause a collapse on food chains/webs and threaten fisheries and livelihoods
Ms.F.Ramnarine SECTION A: STUDY GUIDE
Improper disposal of solid waste
- Negative impacts of improper disposal Soaps and other cleansing agents; toxic chemical waste like insecticides can affect the pH of the soil or water and kill useful soil and aquatic organisms toxic chemical waste like insecticides can make the land less productive for agriculture; toxic chemical waste can seep into underground water supply or rivers Accumulation of waste on land or in gullies or rivers may clog up watercourses leading to flooding The build-up of household waste on land can also encourage the breeding of disease vectors such as flies and rodents. - Definition of reduce, reuse and recycle Reduce: To minimise/lessen the amount of waste we create/generate. Reuse: The act of taking old items that you might consider throwing away and finding a new use for them. That is, using an item multiple times before throwing away Recycle: the process of collecting and processing materials that would otherwise be thrown away as trash and turning them into new products.
- Proper methods of disposal
Disposing the waste at a landfill Separating/reusing non-biodegradable waste Burying biodegradable/organic household waste (making compost bins) Recycling
Eutrophication - Role of agricultural pollution and fertilizers Farmers apply excessive fertilizers to crops Excess fertilizer run off into rivers and ponds during watering or rain Fertilizers are absorbed by algae on surface of water Algae bloom and reproduce, fully covering water’s surface Sunlight cannot reach aquatic plants below Aquatic plants die Decomposers in water break down dead plants and algae using up oxygen in the process Water becomes depleted of oxygen, causing aquatic animals to suffocate and die
- How to prevent eutrophication
Use organic fertilizers Use exact quantities of fertilizers so there is no excess to run off Kill algae in water. No algae mean no eutrophication. Plant trees between the crops and the river/pond to act as a buffer zone. That is, trees absorb the fertilizers before it enters the river. Educate farmers about using fertilizers
