Textbook Hydrogen Volume I Its Technology and Implication Production Technology First Edition Cox Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Hydrogen Volume I Its Technology and Implication Production Technology First Edition Cox Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Hydrogen Volume I Its Technology and Implication Production Technology First Edition Cox Ebook All Chapter PDF
https://textbookfull.com/product/hydrogen-its-technology-and-
implication-implication-of-hydrogen-energy-volume-v-first-
edition-cox/
https://textbookfull.com/product/hydrogen-volume-ii-its-
technology-and-implication-transmission-and-storage-transmission-
and-storage-first-edition-cox/
https://textbookfull.com/product/coulson-and-richardsons-
chemical-engineering-fourth-edition-volume-3a-chemical-and-
biochemical-reactors-and-reaction-engineering-r-ravi/
https://textbookfull.com/product/hydrogen-science-and-
engineering-materials-processes-systems-and-technology-2-volume-
set-1st-edition-detlef-stolten/
Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology, Second
Edition Volume I Laplante
https://textbookfull.com/product/encyclopedia-of-computer-
science-and-technology-second-edition-volume-i-laplante/
https://textbookfull.com/product/wood-adhesives-chemistry-and-
technology-volume-2-first-edition-pizzi/
https://textbookfull.com/product/sustainable-hydrogen-
production-1st-edition-ibrahim-dincer/
https://textbookfull.com/product/hydrogen-generation-from-
ethanol-using-plasma-reforming-technology-1st-edition-jianhua-
yan/
https://textbookfull.com/product/biofuels-production-and-
processing-technology-1st-edition-m-r-riazi/
HYDROGEN: ITS TECHNOLOGY AND
IMPLICATIONS
Editors
SERIES OUTLINE
Volume I
Hydrogen Production Technology
Volume II
Transmission and Storage of Hydrogen
Volume III
Hydrogen Properties
Volume IV
Utilization of Hydrogen
Volume V
Implications of Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen: Its Technology
and Implications
Volume I
Hydrogen Production
Technology
Editors:
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have
been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility
for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to
trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if
permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged
please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted,
or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www. copyright.com
(http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organiza-tion that provides licenses and
registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a
separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Publisher's Note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some
imperfections in the original copies may be apparent.
Disclaimer
The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and welcomes correspondence from those they
have been unable to contact.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the
CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
PREFACE TO HYDROGEN: ITS TECHNOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS
The United States, Western Europe, Japan, and several other countries are presently
faced with an energy shortage due largely to an imbalance of energy consumption over
fossil energy production. This problem was dramatized in October 1973 during the Arab
embargo on the shipment of oil to the United States and the resultant large increases in
the price of crude oil. This shortage in energy supply was then termed the “energy crisis.”
It was a clear demonstration of the nation’s dependence on imported petroleum and its
vulnerability on both political and economic grounds. It is clear that the above problems
would worsen in the future unless more attention and effort are directed toward
increasing domestic energy production from both depletable and nondepletable sources
and reducing energy consumption.
In the short-term, until the year 2000, coal and nuclear energy are expected to play
dominant roles in meeting the energy shortage despite the environmental restrictions that
hamper the production and consumption of high-sulfur coal and similar difficulties (siting
and radioactive waste disposal) that have slowed the development of nuclear energy. In
the long-term, beyond the year 2000, it is imperative that all forms of renewable energy
be developed. These include solar energy, in such forms as wind, ocean thermal gradients,
and biomass; geothermal energy; and fusion.
A major problem with several of the renewable energy sources is that they are
intermittent and their energy density is low; thus, there is a need for an energy carrier
that can act as both a storage and transportation medium to connect the energy source to
the energy consumer. Many of the renewable energy forms, together with coal and fission
exhibit their energy in the form of heat release. It is necessary to develop an energy
carrier, other than electricity, to supply the transportation sector as well as overcome the
problems of electrical storage.
Hydrogen, the lightest element, has been suggested as the energy carrier of the future.
In itself, it is not a primary energy source but rather serves as a medium through which a
primary energy source (such as nuclear or solar energy) can be stored, transmitted, and
utilized to fulfill our energy needs. There are several distinct advantages to the use of
hydrogen as an energy medium. It can be made from water, an inexhaustible resource. On
combustion, water is the main product; thus, hydrogen can be regarded as a clean,
nonpolluting fuel. Indications from current research efforts suggest that hydrogen may be
produced from high-temperature heat sources at an efficiency greater than that of
electrical generation, thereby making hydrogen a more economical energy source than
electricity. Technology has already been developed for storing hydrogen as a pressurized
gas, a cryogenic liquid, or in the form of a metal hydride. Systems for transporting
hydrogen as a gas or a liquid have been developed with liquid hydrogen playing a major
part in NASA’s putting a man on the moon. Finally, hydrogen is of value as a chemical
intermediate, being used in fertilizer manufacture, methanol synthesis, and petroleum
treatment. This area of hydrogen utilization represents 3% of today’s energy consumption
and is expected to grow by a factor of five by the year 2000. The above concept of using
hydrogen is termed the “hydrogen energy economy” and has been receiving an increasing
amount of attention from energy scientists and engineers in the United States and abroad.
This series in five volumes represents a serious attempt at providing information on all
aspects of hydrogen at the postgraduate and professional level. It discusses recent
developments in the science and technology of hydrogen production; hydrogen
transmission and storage; hydrogen utilization; and the social, legal, political, environ
mental, and economic implications of hydrogen’s adoption as an energy medium.
Although there are several reports of selected studies on hydrogen as a fuel, this is the
first comprehensive reference book that covers a wide range of topics of notable interest
and timely importance.
Volume I of the series discusses such topics as hydrogen production from fossil fuels,
nuclear energy, and solar energy. Hydrogen production technology from water by
traditional methods such as water electrolysis and newer attempts to split water
thermochemically are included with details of current research efforts and future
directions.
Volume II provides detailed design information on systems necessary for the storage,
transfer, and transmission of gaseous and liquid hydrogen. Cost factors, technical aspects,
and models of hydrogen pipeline systems are included together with a discussion of
materials for hydrogen service. Metallic hydride gaseous storage systems for the utility
and transportation industry are covered in detail, and the design Dewars and liquid
hydrogen transfer systems are examined.
Volume III focuses on hydrogen’s properties and provides in one location all of the
hydrogen data measured and compiled by the National Bureau of Standards, Cryogenic
Division. The properties are individually discussed, and tables of data are provided. The
properties of slush hydrogen are also included.
Volume IV covers the present and future uses of hydrogen. Hydrogen has been
suggested as a prime candidate for both air and surface transportation. In the utility
industry, hydrogen systems for peak shaving promise to play an important future role.
Both present and future domestic and industrial applications of hydrogen are surveyed.
These include present uses in ammonia and methanol synthesis and future uses in the
direct hydrogasification of coal to synthetic natural gas. Important to all of these
applications are the safety considerations in the use of hydrogen to allow for public
acceptance of hydrogen’s role as an energy medium.
Volume V is primarily concerned with the nontechnical aspects of hydrogen.
Economics of hydrogen energy systems will play a major part in determining the time
frame for hydrogen’s adoption. Cost analyses of such systems with return on investment
considerations are surveyed from the point of view of production, transmission, and
storage of hydrogen. The environmental, political, social, and legal implications of new
secondary energy forms such as hydrogen are discussed with reference to governmental
energy policy, the social costs of energy production and use, and the public’s acceptance
of a hydrogen energy medium.
The unusually broad nature of hydrogen demands the expertise that could only be
provided by a wide authorship; thus, some of the authors are the original authorities in
their respective fields. Although the subject matter treated in each chapter is, in general,
the author’s research work and his critical review of the state-of-the-art, the authors have
had complete freedom in choosing the particular important areas to be emphasized. As a
result, some chapters treat the subject matter in more detail than others with a greater
emphasis on the engineering or design aspects of a particular system. Therefore, each
chapter possesses its own special feature and appealing points. Due to the limited space in
the series, the editors have encouraged each author to supply an extensive list of
references at the end of his chapter for the benefit of interested readers. Detailed author
and subject indexes have been provided at the end of each volume.
The editors, while striving to avoid duplication, have allowed some degree of overlap in
certain of the chapters for the sake of continuity and allowing the reader to view a
particular topic from two or more points of view. Further volumes on the topic of
hydrogen are planned, and we wish to hear from our readers as to areas that might have
been neglected or deserve a special chapter on their own.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to these authors and the staff of CRC
Press, Inc. in particular Mrs. Gayle Tavens and Miss Sandy Pearlman, for their efforts in
making these volumes possible. Lastly, we would like to thank our wives, Patricia R. Cox
and Ruth S. Williamson, for their encouragement and help during the time it took to edit
these five volumes.
K. E. Cox
Albuquerque, New Mexico
K. D. Williamson, Jr.
Los Alamos, New Mexico
March 1975
PREFACE TO VOLUME I:
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
The technology of producing hydrogen has progressed considerably since the discovery
of the decomposition of water by an electric current by Nicolson and Carlisle in 1800
followed by Faraday’s discovery of the laws governing electrolysis in 1833. At present,
most of the hydrogen used is produced by schemes such as the steam reforming of
methane or the partial oxidation of petroleum. With the advent of the age of diminishing
fossil fuels, reappraisal of older technologies for producing hydrogen such as electrolysis
and development of newer methods to produce hydrogen directly from thermal energy or
light has begun.
This volume reviews and evaluates current efforts in research to produce hydrogen
from a variety of energy sources and describes some of the newer approaches undertaken
to decompose water into its elements, hydrogen and oxygen.
Chosen for fuller coverage are water electrolysis and the novel cyclic thermochemical
method that has generated considerable worldwide interest since the early 1970s. Energy
sources were selected with the future in mind. Coal, nuclear energy, and a wide variety of
renewable energy sources have been discussed in detail as potential suppliers of raw
material or energy for the conversion processes. Lesser emphasis was placed on conversion
schemes that are in the early stages of research.
A word of thanks is due all the participants in this volume, the authors who devoted
their expertise and time as well as the editorial staff of CRC Press, Terri Weintraub and
Barbara Perris, who aided in the volume’s preparation. It is our hope that this volume will
prove of use and generate interest in the fascinating field of hydrogen energy research.
Kenneth E. Cox
Albuquerque, New Mexico
March 1977
THE EDITORS
Chapter 1
Water E lec tro ly sis................................................................................................................................................... 3
A. P. Fickett and Fritz R. Kalhammer
Chapter 2
Thermochemical Water D e co m p o sitio n ............................................................................................................. 45
James E. Funk
Chapter 3
Hydrogen from Fossil F u e l s ..................................................................................................................................61
R. I. Kermode
Chapter 4
Hydrogen from Nuclear E n e r g y ........................................................................................................................ 119
R. J. Jiacoletti
Chapter 5
Hydrogen from Solar Energy ............................................................................................................................ 145
Kenneth E. Cox
In d ex .......................................................................................................................................................................185
Chapter 1
Water Electrolysis
Chapter 1
WATER ELECTROLYSIS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
1.6. Projection and Impact of Technological Advances .................................................................... 31
1.6.1. Advanced Alkaline Technology ..................................................................................... 32
1.6.2. SPE T e c h n o lo g y ................................................................................................................. 36
R e fe re n c e s......................................................................................................................................................... 40
4 H y d r o g e n : I t s T e c h n o lo g y a n d I m p lic a tio n s
TABLE 1
aThe original Demag plant is being replaced by BBC electrolyzers. The 1977 BBC electrolyzer’s capacity will be 21,600
m3 /h.
bBegun in 1927, upgraded through 1965.
5
TABLE 3
Company Location
As shown in Figure 1, the critical components where E = the theoretical or minimum voltage at
of the electrolysis cell are the cathode, anode, which electrolysis can occur, F = the Faraday
electrolyte, and diaphragm; these must meet a constant, n = the number of electrons transferred
number of specific criteria. The cathode must be in the reaction, and AG = the change of the Gibbs’
corrosion resistant in the electrolyte at very low free energy for the reaction.
(reducing) potentials, be a good electronic As with any chemical reaction, a change AH of
conductor, catalyze the evolution of hydrogen, heat content (enthalpy) is associated with the
and, in most systems, have structural integrity. water electrolysis reaction. For a constant-
Similarly, the anode must be corrosion resistant in pressure, isothermal process such as water
the electrolyte at oxidizing potentials, be a good electrolysis, AH is related to AG by:
electronic conductor, catalyze the evolution of
oxygen, and, in most systems, have structural (7a)
integrity.
where
The electrolyte must be stable at the reducing
and oxidizing potentials of the cathode and anode, AQr = TAS (7b)
respectively, and must provide a sufficient concen
tration of hydroxyl or hydronium ions for good and AH = the enthalpy (heat content) change for
electrolytic (ionic) conductivity. The diaphgragm the reaction; the enthalpy change at standard
must be stable in the electrolyte, either have ionic conditions is equal to the higher heating value of
conductivity or adsorb electrolyte to provide hydrogen; AQr = the heat that must be exchanged
adequate ionic conduction, have physical integrity, with the environment if the reversibly conducted
and separate the hydrogen and oxygen (both as cell reaction is to remain at constant temperature;
gases and dissolved in the electrolyte). T = cell temperature; and AS = the entropy change
The significant electrochemical parameters of a for the electrolysis reaction.
water electrolysis cell are the cell voltage (a direct For electrolysis to occur at practical rates, the
measure of the energy required for electrolysis and voltage (V) applied to the cell must exceed the
thus closely related to the efficiency of the cell) reversible cell voltage (E0). The difference V -EQ is
and the cell current density, which is a measure of needed to overcome the resistances (electric and
the quantity of hydrogen produced by a unit area polarization) associated with the electrolysis
of cell and is thus related to capital costs. process; the corresponding energy is eventually
L l.2.2. Cell Voltage dissipated within the cell as irreversible heat (AQj)
The theoretical minimum, or reversible, according to:
electrolysis cell voltage (E) is determined by the
minimum electric energy that must be supplied to
( 8)
the cell for electrolysis to occur. This energy in
turn, is given by the decrease in free energy, AG,
required to decompose water into its elements. Rewriting Equation (8) using Equations (6) and
Written for molar quantities of the cell reaction:6 (7a) yields:
(6 ) (9)
Equation 9 states that the reversible endo “ th e rm o n e u tra l voltage.” Electrolysis cells
thermic heat requirement (AQr) of the electrolysis operated at voltages between E and the ΔΗ voltage
reaction is exactly balanced by the irreversible must be supplied heat from an external source to
heat (AQj) liberated due to cell inefficiency when maintain the constant-temperature operation of
the applied cell voltage equals sometimes practical interest; cells operated above the ΔΗ
referred to as the ΔΗ voltage. Since under these voltage must be cooled.
conditions no heat is exchanged with the cell Figure 2 depicts both AG and ΔΗ as a function
environment, the ΔΗ voltage is also termed the of temperature. It is apparent that the minimum
7
FIGURE 2. Theoretical electrolysis voltage vs. temperature.
electrolysis voltage decreases substantially with above E but below the ΔΗ voltage, efficiencies
increasing temperature; on the other hand, the above 100% are possible; under these conditions,
thermoneutral voltage increases somewhat with energy is conserved through absorption of heat
temperature. This means that, with increasing from the cell environment. However, at present all
temperature, a larger driving force (V - E) is practical electrolyzers operate at voltages in excess
available for cell operation at the thermoneutral of the ΔΗ voltage (and, hence, at efficiencies
voltage - that is, this desirable operating condition below 100%), which require cooling.
becomes more feasible at higher temperatures. The voltage of an operating cell can be
The thermal efficiency of an electrolysis cell represented as follows:
customarily is defined as the ratio of the heat
content (= higher heating value) of the product ( 11)
hydrogen to the input electrolysis energy:
where V = the cell operating voltage (volts), E =
the theoretical cell voltage (volts), 7?c = the
GO)
cathode overvoltage (volts), rja = the anode over
voltage (volts), I = the cell current (amperes), and
Since water can be electrolyzed at voltages R0 = the cell resistance (ohms).
9
FIGURE 3. Typical polarization curves.
where ΔΕ = the change in cell voltage due to cause increased resistance of aqueous electrolytes,
pressure (volts), R = the gas constant, T = reducing bubble volume can significantly decrease
temperature, °K, F = the Faraday constant, and y - the IR0 term. In agreement with this concept,
= the ratio of pressures for which ΔΕ applies. some developers observe10 that electrolysis cell
For example, at 25°C, ΔΕ = 0.044 log10 P. performance improves with increased pressure.
Thus, 44 mV would be required to deliver the Higher pressures, however, do cause difficulties
gases at 10 atm, 88 mV at 100 atm, and so on. in separating and containing the pressurized gases,
However, in practice, the voltage penalty for pres as well as greater materials problems such as
surization is even less than the theoretical for two hydrogen embrittlement. Also, at higher pressures,
reasons. First, reversible thermodynamics only ap hydrogen and oxygen will more rapidly diffuse
ply for reversible electrode processes. If the elec
across the diaphragm and recombine before they
trode process is irreversible (i.e., r?c or r?a is large),
leave the system. This causes the apparent rate of
most of the energy of activation can be recovered
hydrogen generation to be less than that calculated
as pressure-volume work. For example, in acid from Equation 12. At high pressures and tempera
systems where r?c is large, one does not observe a ture, this current inefficiency can cause significant
voltage penalty for pressurizing the oxygen.
losses (1 to 10%) of the hydrogen generated.
Instead of Equation 15, the following equation
applies:
1.1.2.7. Electrolysis Module or Stack
(16) Individual electrolysis cells are grouped
together in modules or stacks to form con
Equation 13 essentially accounts for the veniently sized packages with common electrical,
pressurization of the hydrogen only. Second, the thermal, and fluid interfaces — tank-type or
volume of the evolving gas bubbles is reduced as filter-press configurations. These configurations
pressure is increased. Since evolving bubbles can are discussed in detail in Section 1.2.
11
FIGURE 4. Types of electrolysis modules.
13
FIGURE 6. Lurgi “Electrolytor” - a filter press electrolyzer capable of producing 740 m3/h hydro
gen. (Courtesy of Lurgi-Apparate-Technik GmbH.)
• Relatively simple pressurized operation coolant fluid. The module produces hydrogen
due to the physical characteristics of the SPE saturated with water, oxygen saturated with water,
• Efficient operation at high current and waste heat (in the coolant fluid). Accordingly,
densities. the overall electrolysis system must provide the
following functions:
The major disadvantage of the SPE technology
is that its key components — electrodes, the • Power conditioning
membrane, and structural materials — are more • Reactant water purification and flow
expensive than those used in alkaline electrolyzers; • Coolant fluid circulation, heat removal,
the SPE alone costs $100 to $200 per square and temperature
meter. Thus, the SPE electrolyzer is more • P ro d u c t gas w a te r removal and
expensive on a cost per unit area basis. However, purification (and pressurization, if required)
the more important cost per unit of hydrogen • Electrolyte monitoring and concentration
production capacity can be comparable to higher (related to reactant water flow control)
current densities that can be achieved with SPE • Instrumentation, master control console,
electrolyzers at a given voltage. and sufficient automation of control functions to
provide cost-effective, safe, and reliable operation
1.3. ELECTROLYSIS
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS Some installations may also require means for
compressing and storing the product gas.
Many auxiliary components and services are Plant size and services — including availability
required to support the operation of an electroly of power and water - must be carefully con
sis module. In its simplest form, the electrolysis sidered before selecting the installation site.
module must be supplied with conditioned and Electrolysis plants occupy floor areas ranging from
controlled dc power, pure reactant water, and a 16 to 160 m2 per 1000 m3/h of hydrogen
produced. The newer aerospace concepts require hydrogen output. Thus, a precise and infinitely
smaller areas; older commercial concepts require variable control of the dc supply voltage is
larger areas. Plant heights typically range from 5 to required to provide a variable but controlled
8 m. hydrogen output. DC voltage control is obtained
Support subsystems, components, and instal by one of three methods:
lation costs usually represent between 30 and 50%
of the total cost of an electrolysis plant. The 1. Thyristor regulation: The dc voltage is
actual cost depends on the purity and pressure of varied by proper phase positioning of the con
hydrogen required, the electrolysis concept duction period of the thyristors during the ac
selected, the nature of the installation site, and the half-wave;
level of automation required. 2. Induction regulation: The induction
A schematic diagram of a typical electrolysis regulator is connected in series with an additional
plant is given in Figure 7; the major auxiliary rectifier-transformer. With induction regulators,
subsystems are discussed below. only silicon diodes are required for rectification;
3. Tap changer-transducer regulation: the
1.3.1. Power Conditioning and Control coarse voltage control is obtained by positioning a
A transformer-rectifier unit is required to tap changer on the transformer-rectifier; the fine
supply the electrolysis module with dc power; voltage control is obtained automatically by means
silicon diodes or thyristors are used as rectifier of a transducer.
elements. The major complication is the control
circuit. The polarization curves (Figure 3) of Most large commercial electrolyzers use the
commercial electrolyzers are relatively flat. Small tap-change method. Induction regulation is limited
changes in voltage can cause large changes in both in current and voltage and is not useful in
15
large plants. Historically, thyristor controls have atmosphere. However, the quantity of heat to be
been more expensive than other types. However, rejected plus the cost of air/liquid cooling towers
with recent improvements in thyristor per makes this method much less attractive than water
formance and cost, thyristor control is now cooling.
competitive, especially for large installations. Temperature is controlled by thermo regulating
Power conditioners are about 97% efficient and schemes that control the coolant flow. For
are usually designed to provide a variable output startup, heaters are often used to bring the coolant
of from 25 to 100% of the rated hydrogen and the electrolyzer to the desired temperature
generation rate. Output voltages range from 200 to quickly.
1000 Vdc. The trend is to change to higher At least two other significant cooling inter
voltages as improved electronic components faces are needed for an electrolysis system. The
become available. Higher dc voltages reduce the gases must be cooled to lower their dew
current that must be handled and produce higher points, and the power conditioner must also be
conversion efficiencies. Eventually, the need for cooled. In commercial practice, the coolant is
power conditioning might be eliminated by the use passed in series through the gas coolers, the
of cyclic or homopolar generators, which could electrolyte heat exchanger, and the power
pro v id e dc power directly from rotating conditioner. The gas coolers are usually an integral
machinery. part of the gas separation-purification subsystems.
The objective is to lower the dew point of the
1.3.2. Cooling Fluid Circulation and Control gases, increasing the purity of the gases as much as
All commercial electrolyzers operate at voltages possible. Gas coolers are located upstream froni
well above the thermoneutral voltage of 1.48 Vdc the main electrolyte cooler where the cooling
and therefore require cooling. The amount of water is coldest. Since the power conditioner can
cooling required is approximately: operate at a warmer temperature than the
electrolyzer, it is located downstream from the
(17) electrolyte heat exchanger.
For commercial electrolyzers, the cooling
where C = the cooling requirement (kilowatts), V water requirement is about 30 times that of the
= the cell voltage (volts), and Pa = the kilovolt electrolyzer feed (reactant) water, or about 301 of
ampere of ac power supplied to the power cooling water per m3/h hydrogen produced.
conditioner. About 90% of the heat is removed from the
Most of the heat is removed from the electro electrolyte, 5% from the gases, and 5% from the
lyte (or from the recirculating water, in the power conditioner.
case of General Electric’s SPE electrolyzer) in one
of two ways. (1) If the electrolyte is recirculated, 1.3.3. Product Gas-water Removal, Purification,
it can be passed through a heat exchanger external and Pressure Control
to the cell. In the heat exchanger, the heat can be The product gases exit from the electrolyzer
removed from the system by transferring it to a and enter a gas separator, which allows the liquid
coolant (water or air). (2) If the electrolyte is not to be separated from the gas by gravity. The
recirculated, coolant must be circulated through separator is sometimes designed to bubble the gas
the electrolyzer to remove heat. This method through a head of electrolyte. The electrolyte level
requires separate cooling coils within the is maintained by a distilled-water feed. This
electrolyzer. removes particulates from the gas and provides an
The cooling system often has an intermediary interface for adding feed water to the electrolyzer.
or secondary coolant to interface with the The gases next enter gas coolers where the dew
electrolyte heat exchanger. For example, the Lurgi point is reduced to near ambient temperature.
“electrolytor” uses an “intermediate water loop” If required, the gases are further purified by
to transfer heat from the electrolyte heat ex in-line filtering and catalytic devices. Even without
changer to the plant cooling water heat exchanger. further catalytic purification, most electrolyzers
The intermediate loop is easily kept clean, provide > 99% pure gases; with catalytic devices,
reducing maintenance of the “electrolytor.” purities of > 99.9% are readily attained.
Air can be used to reject waste heat to ambient The gases are pressurized by a pressure regu
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside
the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to
the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying,
displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works
based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The
Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright
status of any work in any country other than the United States.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if
you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project
Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or
other format used in the official version posted on the official
Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at
no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a
means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project
Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.F.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.