LESSON 4 Structure of a bacterial cell

A Survey of Prokaryotic Cells and Microorganisms (PROKARYOTE)

Characteristics of Cells and Life

All living things (single and multicellular) are made of

cells that share some common characteristics:

– Basic shape – spherical, cubical,

cylindrical

– Internal content – cytoplasm,

surrounded by a membrane

– DNA chromosome(s), ribosomes,

metabolic capabilities

Two basic cell types: eukaryotic and prokaryotic

Characteristics of Cells

Eukaryotic cells: animals, plants, fungi, and protists

– Contain membrane-bound organelles External Structures

that compartmentalize the cytoplasm
and perform specific functions • Appendages

– Contain double-membrane bound – Two major groups of appendages:

nucleus with DNA chromosomes
• Motility – flagella and axial filaments
Prokaryotic cells: bacteria and archaea (periplasmic flagella)

– No nucleus or other membrane-bound • Attachment or channels – fimbriae

organelles and pili

• Glycocalyx – surface coating

Characteristics of Life

• Reproduction and heredity – genome composed Flagella

of DNA packed in chromosomes; produce offspring
• 3 parts:
sexually or asexually
– Filament – long, thin, helical structure
• Growth and development
composed of protein flagellin
• Metabolism – chemical and physical life processes
– Hook – curved sheath
• Movement and/or irritability – respond to
– Basal body – stack of rings firmly anchored
internal/external stimuli; self-propulsion of many
in cell wall
organisms
• Rotates 360o
• Cell support, protection, and storage
mechanisms – cell walls, vacuoles, granules and
inclusions

• Transport of nutrients and waste

 • Functions in motility of cell through environment

Flagellar Arrangements Fimbriae

Monotrichous – single flagellum at one end • Fine, proteinaceous, hairlike bristles emerging
from the cell surface
Lophotrichous – small bunches emerging from the
same site • Function in adhesion to other cells and surfaces

Amphitrichous – flagella at both ends of cell

Peritrichous – flagella dispersed over surface of cell Pili

• Rigid tubular structure made of pilin protein

Flagellar Responses • Found only in gram-negative cells

Guide bacteria in a direction in response to external • Function to join bacterial cells for partial DNA
stimulus: transfer called conjugation

Chemical stimuli – chemotaxis; positive and

negative
Glycocalyx
Light stimuli – phototaxis
• Coating of molecules external to the cell wall,
Signal sets flagella into motion clockwise or made of sugars and/or proteins
counterclockwise:
• Two types:
Counterclockwise – results in smooth linear direction
– run 1. Slime layer - loosely organized and
attached
Clockwise – tumbles
2. Capsule - highly organized, tightly
attached

Periplasmic Flagella

• Internal flagella, enclosed in the space between the Functions of the Glycocalyx
outer sheath and the cell wall peptidoglycan
• Protect cells from dehydration and nutrient loss
• Produce cellular motility by contracting and imparting
twisting or flexing motion • Inhibit killing by white blood cells by phagocytosis,
contributing to pathogenicity (explain)

• Attachment - formation of biofilms

The Cell Envelope

• External covering outside the cytoplasm

• Composed of two basic layers:

– Cell wall and cell membrane

• Maintains cell integrity

• Two different groups of bacteria demonstrated by – Outer membrane contains lipopolysaccharides
Gram stain: (LPS)

– Gram-positive bacteria: thick cell wall • Lipid portion (endotoxin) may become toxic
composed primarily of peptidoglycan and cell when released during infections
membrane
• May function as receptors and blocking
– Gram-negative bacteria: outer cell membrane, immune response
thin peptidoglycan layer, and cell membrane
• Contain porin proteins in upper layer –
regulate molecules entering and leaving cell

Structure of Cell Walls

• Determines cell shape, prevents lysis due to

changing osmotic pressures

• Peptidoglycan is the primary component:

– Unique macromolecule composed of a

repeating framework of long glycan chains
cross-linked by short peptide fragments

Gram-Positive Cell Wall

– 20-80 nm thick peptidoglycan

– Includes teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid:

function in cell wall maintenance and enlargement
during cell division; move cations across the cell The Gram Stain
envelope; stimulate a specific immune response
• Differential stain that distinguishes cells with a gram-
– Some cells have a periplasmic space, between the positive cell wall from those with a gram-negative
cell membrane and cell wall cell wall

– Gram-positive - retain crystal violet and

stain purple
Gram-Negative Cell Wall
– Gram-negative - lose crystal violet and
– Inner and outer membranes and periplasmic space stain red from safranin counterstain
between them contains a thin peptidoglycan layer
• Important basis of bacterial classification and – Passage of nutrients into the cell and
identification discharge of wastes

• Practical aid in diagnosing infection and guiding drug – Cell membrane is selectively permeable
treatment

Inside the Bacterial Cell

• Cell cytoplasm:

– Dense gelatinous solution of sugars, amino

acids, and salts

– 70-80% water (Why is this important to

know?)

• Serves as solvent for materials used in all

cell functions

Nucleoid

• Chromosome

– Single, circular, double-stranded DNA

molecule that contains all the genetic
information required by a cell

• Plasmids

– Free small circular, double-stranded DNA

– Not essential to bacterial growth and

Nontypical Cell Walls metabolism
(always some exceptions)
– Used in genetic engineering - readily
• Some bacterial groups lack typical cell wall structure, manipulated and transferred from cell to cell
i.e., Mycobacterium and Nocardia

– Gram-positive cell wall structure with lipid mycolic

acid (cord factor) Bacterial Ribosome

• Pathogenicity and high degree of resistance to • Ribosomes

certain chemicals and dyes – Made of 60% ribosomal RNA and 40%
• Basis for acid-fast stain used for diagnosis of protein
infections caused by these microorganisms – Consist of two subunits: large and small
• Some have no cell wall, i.e., Mycoplasma – Prokaryotic differ from eukaryotic ribosomes
– Cell wall is stabilized by sterols in size and number of proteins

– Pleomorphic – Site of protein synthesis

– Found in all cells

Cell Membrane Structure

• Phospholipid bilayer with a mosaic of embedded Bacterial Internal Structures

proteins – fluid mosaic model • Inclusions and granules
• Functions in: – Intracellular storage bodies
– Providing site for energy reactions, nutrient – Vary in size, number, and content
processing, and synthesis
– Bacterial cell can use them when environmental
sources are depleted
• Cytoskeleton Endospores

– Many bacteria possess an internal network of protein • Dehydrated, metabolically inactive

polymers that is closely associated with the cell wall
• Thick coat
• Endospores
• Longevity verges on immortality, 250 million years
– Inert, resting, cells produced by some G+ genera:
Clostridium, Bacillus, and Sporosarcina • Resistant to ordinary cleaning methods and boiling

• Have a 2-phase life cycle:

• Vegetative cell – metabolically active and • Pressurized steam at 120oC for 20-30 minutes will
growing destroy

• Endospore – when exposed to adverse Bacterial Shapes, Arrangements, and Sizes

environmental conditions; capable of high • Vary in shape, size, and arrangement but typically
resistance and very long-term survival described by one of three basic shapes:

– – Sporulation - formation of endospores – Coccus – spherical

• Hardiest of all life forms – Bacillus – rod
• Withstands extremes in heat, drying, • Coccobacillus – very short and plump
freezing, radiation, and chemicals
• Vibrio – gently curved
• Not a means of reproduction
– Spirillum – helical, comma, twisted rod,
– Germination - return to vegetative growth
• Spirochete – spring-like • Arrangement of cells is dependent on pattern of
division and how cells remain attached after division:

– C
o
cc
i:

•
•
•
•
•
Common bacterial shapes •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singles

• Diplococci – in pairs

• Tetrads – groups of four

• Irregular clusters

• Chains

Pleomorphism

• Variation in cell shape and size within a single

species – often occurs in response to the
environment

• Some species are noted for their pleomorphism

Bacterial Arrangements
 2. Macroscopic morphology – colony
appearance

3. Bacterial physiology – presence of products

that are the result of bacterial metabolism and
physiological activities

4. Serological analysis – basically antibody

binding properties (antibody is a large molecule
produced by the body to attack foreign agents)

5. Genetic and molecular analysis – identification

based on the presence of genetic materials or
molecules

Bacterial Taxonomy Based on Bergey’s Manual

• Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology –

five volume resource covering all known prokaryotes

– Classification based on genetic information

• Cubical packets (sarcina) –phylogenetic
– Bacilli: – Two domains: Archaea and Bacteria
• Diplobacilli – Five major subgroups with 25 different phyla
• Chains

• Palisades Bergey’s Classification Scheme

Diagnostic Scheme for Medical Use

Classification Systems for Prokaryotes • Uses phenotypic qualities in identification
1. Microscopic morphology – individual cell – Restricted to bacterial disease agents
appearance
 – Divides bacteria based on cell wall structure, • Rickettsia rickettisii – Rocky Mountain spotted
shape, arrangement, and physiological traits fever

Species and Subspecies Unusual Forms of Medically Significant Bacteria

• Species – a collection of bacterial cells which share – Chlamydias

an overall similar pattern of traits in contrast to other
bacteria whose pattern differs significantly • Tiny

• Strain or variety – a culture derived from a single • Obligate intracellular parasites

parent that differs in structure or metabolism from • Not transmitted by arthropods
other cultures of that species (biovars, morphovars)
• Chlamydia trachomatis – severe eye infection and
• Type – a subspecies that can show differences in one of the most common sexually transmitted
antigenic makeup (serotype or serovar), diseases
susceptibility to bacterial viruses (phage type) and in
pathogenicity (pathotype) • Chlamydia pneumoniae – lung infections

Prokaryotes with Unusual Characteristics

• Photosynthetic bacteria – use photosynthesis,

can synthesize required nutrients from inorganic
compounds

– Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)

– Green and purple sulfur bacteria

– Gliding, fruiting bacteria

– Carry out more photosynthesis than all

plants combined

Unusual Forms of
Medically Significant Bacteria

• Obligate intracellular parasites

– Rickettsias

• Very tiny, gram-negative bacteria

• Most are pathogens

• Obligate intracellular pathogens

• Cannot survive or multiply outside of a host cell