Jurnal Rekayasa Kimia dan Lingkungan

(Journal of Chemical Engineering and Environment)

Volume 17, Number 1, Page 44 – 52, January -June, 2022
ISSN 1412-5064, e-ISSN 2356-1661
https:// 10.23955/rkl.v17i1.23223

Optimizing Gold Recovery of Artisanal Mining:

A Lesson Learned from Kenya

I N Aslam1,4*, N Orcon2, B Klein3, P N Alam4,5

1
Western Australia School of Mines, Minerals Energy and Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, 95 Egan
Street, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, 6430
2
Vale North Atlantic Operations, 200 Bay Street, Royal Bank Plaza, Suite 1500, South Tower, Toronto,
Ontario, M5J 2K2
3
Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, Faculty of Applied Science, University of British
Columbia, 571-6350 Stores Road, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6T 1Z4
4
Departement of Mining Engineering, School of Earth Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Syiah
Kuala, Jalan Tgk. Syech Abdurrauf As Singkili, No. 7, Darussalam, Banda Aceh, 23111
5
Departement of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Jalan Tgk. Syech
Abdurrauf As Singkili, No. 7, Darussalam, Banda Aceh, 23111, Indonesia
*E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected]

Article History
Received: 27 October 2021; Received in Revision: 10 March 2022; Accepted: 7 April 2022

Abstract

The metallurgical testings to treat the Kenyan artisanal gold mining samples were performed
with several processes such as gravity concentration (i.e., Knelson Concentrator and panning),
flotation, and cyanidation or leaching. These tests were conducted to find the best processing
stages to improve the Kenyan artisanal mining recovery. Of the three categories of samples
treated, sample A, which was processed through gravity concentration and flotation, produced
95.64% of gold recovery. Meanwhile, sample B could produce 98.74% of gold recovery with the
cyanidation test. The results from sample A and sample B confirmed that the combination of
the Knelson concentrator and flotation, which the Processing Center should handle, was the
perfect combination to reduce the use of cyanide during the leaching process. On the other
hand, the study also showed that the tailing sample (sample C) could still be recovered through
flotation. With the results obtained, the best scenario was proposed. The government played a
critical role in facilitating both the artisanal miners and the Processing Center for both cases in
Kenya or Aceh.

Keywords: Artisanal mining, flotation, gold recovery, gravity concentration, leaching

1. Introduction agricultural season (Anyona and Rop, 2015).

They also sometimes work for landlords that
On a worldwide scale, there are at least 10 pay them with food, water, and shelter with a
million artisanal miners in more than 70 share of the profit in the end (Anyona and Rop,
countries working to extract gold (Veiga et al., 2015).
2009). According to Sousa et al. (2010), the
artisanal and small-scale gold mining process Like other countries, Kenyan artisanal mining
is always associated with poverty. Therefore, has become a sector offering socio-economic
it involves unskilled people, rudimentary benefits but causing land degradation, habitat
techniques, and traditional equipment. To damage, and soil and water contamination for
obtain gold, miners often do not consider a long time (Ngure et al., 2017). For example,
environmental and safety factors. Sadly, this Kenya's Migori Gold Belt, which contains a
sector is deemed illegal in some places as sulfide-associated mineral, is the area that
miners also work without concession because contributes to the release of acid water in the
of a lack of understanding of geological form of sulphuric acid that harms the aquatic
aspects. life and threatens people who consume the
water around the mining site (Mutono, 2016;
Generally, artisanal miners in Kenya are Ngure et al., 2017). Veiga et al. (2009)
migratory workers. They extract the mineral reported that one of the ways the miners use
from site to site depending on: (1) life of mine; to obtain the gold quickly is through
(2) high value of mineral strikes; (3) conflict amalgamation. Unfortunately, this process
and social issue; (4) restriction in the previous discharges the waste containing annually
location; (5) existence of larger-scale miners; 1000 tonnes of mercury (Hg) to the
(6) quantity of rainfall and water; and (7) environment, resulting in even worse issues,

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especially regarding a health concerns. In were applied in Zimbabwe. However, mercury

detail, Veiga et al. (2009) highlighted that is still utilized in the process. Meanwhile, the
30% of the mercury is vaporized during the use of flotation tends to produce higher
roasting process, and the rest is during recovery than concentration. However,
amalgamation. flotation is quite complex in terms of operating
variables (Hinton et al., 2003). For the fine
To solve those issues, any technical solution and porous gold ore, cyanidation is even more
to be implemented in artisanal mining regions promising than the use of flotation that also
must be simple, fast, inexpensive, and more utilizes a certain number of reagents (as a
efficient than amalgamation (Veiga et al., frother, collector, depressant, pH modifier)
2009). Few actions promoted in this case (Veiga, 2020). Consequently, there is still a
might effectively solve the complex problem large potential for environmental damage due
(Sousa et al., 2010). The use of cyanide is one to the used reagents discharged without
of the options that is thought to be a good proper pretreatment. Based on the case in
solution in substituting mercury due to the Indonesia, Veiga (2020) stated that the
less or non-toxic tailing production (Veiga et artisanal miners may need close technical
al., 2009). However, it still poisons the assistance to conduct the flotation process.
environment if it is not handled well and This then also similar to the case of the
correctly. According to Veiga et al. (2009) and Knelson concentrator (Veiga, 2020).
Veiga et al. (2014), it is challenging to fully
achieve the safest process as the artisanal Of all those trade-offs, the testings using a
mining activities may depend on: (1) centrifugal concentrator (i.e., a Knelson
investment capacity; (2) level of education concentrator) combined with flotation and
and motivation of miners; (3) environmentally cyanidation were expected to produce better
friendly methods; and (4) good government results. For the case of artisanal mining in
policies toward those miners. Thus, although Kenya, the combination of those processes is
it does not fully replace the mercury process, also highly required and has never been
Santos (2013) stated that a combination of investigated before. Therefore, this study will
concentrating the gold by gravity reveal some metallurgical processes' best
concentration (e.g., primary or secondary mineral processing routes (i.e., Knelson
gravity concentration) or flotation is efficient concentrating, flotation, and cyanidation) in
and very promising to gain more recovery. recovering the Kenyan artisanal gold mining
ore. In this case, the gold ore's recovery and
Veiga (2020) stated that concentration grade were the two main variables
equipment is very effective for the gold determining how better the metallurgical
particle size larger than 0.074 mm in the case processes were conducted. Definitions and
of gravity concentration. However, some formulas to calculate the two variables were
equipment such as tables, jigs, and elutriators explained by (Wills and Finch, 2016).
are not efficient for fine gold particles. As a
result, the recovery obtained tends to be low. It was expected that the study could suggest
Although using these machines is better than feasible and applicable processing steps to
panning, the efficiency levels are still help the miners treat the ores more
questionable compared to sluice boxes, which environmentally friendly. In this case, the
are cheaper (Veiga et al., 2006). One of the feasibility and applicability of the overall or
promising methods to solve the each individual process are indicated by the
aforementioned complex issue is using the gold recovery. It is also likely that more
Knelson concentrator. Centrifugal concen- stakeholders involved in direct activities and
trators, in this case, Knelson concentrator and management of artisanal mining, particularly
magnetic sluice, for the Ecuadorian case have in Aceh, Indonesia, could be inspired by the
resulted in a recovery of 5 to 8%. This low result of this study. As a result, the artisanal
recovery was due to the characteristic of fine mining activities, particularly in Aceh, can be
gold particles. better in the future.

The recovery obtained for the Canadian-made 2. Methodology

Knelson concentration can be up to 60%
(Veiga et al., 2006). However, the price for a 2.1. Materials
Knelson concentrator is higher than cheap
centrifuges (e.g., the ones producing The main material used in this study was gold
concentrates of 1000 g/t gold), as in the case ore obtained from Kenya. This gold ore
of Brazilian artisanal mining. There were other consists of 12 samples with different grades
similar centrifugal concentrators (i.e., and a total weight of 25.5401 kg, as shown in
Knudsen and GoldKacha concentrators) that Table 1.

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2.2. Sample Pretreatment

Table 1. The Kenyan artisanal gold mining sample
received. 2.2.1. Splitting and Mixing

No Sample Label Weight (g) As in Figure 1, the splitting process was

conducted to compare the result of
1. AR1 2074.6
2. AR1-3 1968.6 metallurgical testings and methods
3. AR2 1939.5 conducted. The grades for samples A and B
4. AR3 1962.3 were calculated by mass balance, as shown in
5. AR9-1 1932.4 e and Table 3. Meanwhile, the gold and silver
6. AR9-5 3894.5 grades for the tailing were obtained from the
7. AR10-1 1958.7 metallurgical data provided before the sample
8. AR10-2 1926.1 was received, which are 2.45 and 0.30 g/t,
9. AR10-3 1943.4
respectively.
10. AR10-5 1965.7
11. AR10-9 2015.4
12. Tailing 1958.9

Total 25540.1

Initially, all samples were grouped based on

the three grade classifications as follows:
a) Sample A with the grade > 20 g/t (high-
grade sample)
b) Sample B with grade < 20 g/t (low grade
sample)
c) Sample C with a grade of 2 g/t (tailing)

After being grouped according to the

established grade, all sub-samples were Figure 1. General testing procedure.
homogenized. The summary of the first two
groups of the sample (sample A and sample 2.2.2. PSD Analysis
B) is shown in Table 2 and Table 3.
To get the best recovery, as each metallurgical
Table 2. Sample A (high-grade). test has a specific particle size characteristic
treated, several Particle Size Distribution
Sample Grade (g/t) Weight (PSD) analyses were conducted for those
Label Au Ag (g) samples. The PSD analysis was done by
screening the sample using Ro-Tap RX-29
87.33 8.10 2074.6 Sieve Shaker and Screens. The size
AR-1
99.05 8.80 distribution in every screen was then plotted
AR9-1 25.63 6.40 1932.4 to get the F80. This means that there were
AR10-3 32.27 17.20 1943.4 80% of the material passed the sieve opening.
The output of the PSD analysis was to ensure
Total 51.35 10.64 5950.4
the material had the required size before being
tested. For the material considered too coarse,
Table 3. Sample B (low-grade). the rod mill was used to crush the material.
The milling process was continuously repeated
Sample Grade (g/t) Weight until the required particle size for the
Label Au Ag (g)
operation was obtained. The operating particle
sizes for this study are listed in Table 4.
AR1-3 16.90 1.60 1968.6
AR2 6.23 0.80 1939.5
AR3 3.88 0.20 1962.3 Table 4. Particle size for every test.
AR9-5 13.42 0.50 3894.5
1.76 0.80 Sample Particle Size Remarks
AR10-1 1958.7
1.63 0.90
1926.1 < 1 mm For GRG test
AR10-2 16.06 2.30 A
1965.7 94 microns For flotation test
AR10-5 3.59 0.60 < 1 mm For GRG test
2015.4 B
AR10-9 6.63 0.90 103 microns For flotation test
Total 9.07 0.91 17630.8 0.22 mm Initial sample size
C
94 microns For flotation test
*GRG (Gravity Recoverable Gold)

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2.2. Gravity Recoverable Gold (GRG) Test 2.4. Cyanidation Test

A Gravity Recoverable Gold (GRG) testing The leaching or cyanidation process was
process conducted consisted of two methods: conducted only for sample B. This was to
(1) primary gravity concentration and (2) extract, purify, and recover more gold from
secondary gravity concentration. According to the flotation tailing. The pH condition set up
Dominy (2014), an ore sample's recovery for the leaching test was 11 to prevent the
from Gravity Recoverable Gold (GRG) production of HCN gas and another reaction if
indicates the ore sample's amenability to the the pH was below nine and higher than 11.5,
gravity concentration method. In this study, respectively. The leaching process was done
the primary gravity concentration was inside the beaker glass equipped with the
performed using Knelson Concentrator Model agitator to increase the reaction kinetics and
KC-MD3 manufactured in Langley, British improve the extraction. The tailing product
Columbia. This is due to its high-mass yield obtained was sent for fire assay. By using the
recovery (McLeavy et al., 2001). head grade, the result was back-calculated to
get the concentrate grade. The operating
In addition, to improve the recovery to over condition for the cyanidation test is
50%, the secondary gravity concentration was summarized in Table 5.
done by panning. For sample C, as it was
considered tailing material before the sample Table 5. Cyanidation test condition
was received, the gravity concentration would
not give a better recovery. Thus, the GRG test Variables Value Unit
was skipped for this sample, and the step
directly proceeded to the flotation test. Solids 300 g
Solution 450 g
Percent Solids 40 %
2.3. Flotation Test Slurry Wt 750 g
pH 8
The tailings from first and secondary gravity Bottle Wt 336.7 g
concentrations were mixed and concentrated
in the Metso flotation cell. More recovery was Figure 3 shows the treatment for Sample B in
expected to be achieved through this flotation which a leaching test was involved. The feed
test. For sample B, the flotation tailing was for the leaching test was obtained from the
sent for the leaching process to improve the tailings discharged from both gravity
recovery further. concentration processes.

Figure 2. Sample A procedure.

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Figure 3. Sample B procedure.

Figure 4. Sample C procedure.

This additional procedure has made Sample recovery in the metallurgical balancing of
B's treatment different from the other two every test conducted.
samples (A and C), ( Figure 2 and Figure 4).
3. Results and Discussion
2.5. Drying
3.1. Testing Result for Sample A
The moisture content of the testing product
was filtered using Peterson Filters. To further As previously explained, there were two
reduce the moisture content as preparation for gravity concentration processes followed with
fire assay, Micropack Drying Oven was used to flotation conducted for sample A. The gravity
dry the materials. concentration tests used the Knelson
Concentrator and the panning method. The
2.6. Assaying & Metallurgical Balancing combined metallurgical balancing result of
gravity concentration and flotation tests for
During the project, 13 products were sent for sample A is summarized in Table 6.
fire assays. Fire assay is still a widely accepted
method for analyzing Platinum Group Metal After carrying out the metallurgical balance of
(PGE) and gold elements from low to medium sample A as shown in Table 6, it was found
grades. The fire assay procedure generally that the recovery for the gravity concentration
consists of fluxing and fusion, slag separation, concentrate was 71.72%, concerning the
cupellation, and complex analyses, which highest amount of concentrate grade. This
usually include gravimetric and instrumental number was considered amenable as using the
analysis. In this study, the result obtained Knelson Concentrator combined with panning
from the fire assay was used to calculate the should at least recover 57% of gold (Chen et
al., 2020).

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Table 6. Metallurgical balance for samples A and B.

Weight Grade Yield Recovery Total Recovery

Sample Process Stream
(g) (g/t) (%) (%) (%)
Feed 2124.70 54.43 100.00 100.00
Gravity
Concentrate 14.40 5759.57 0.68 71.72 71.72
Concentration
A Tailing 2110.30 15.50 99.32 28.28
Concentrate 151.30 87.11 15.05 23.93 95.64
Flotation
Tailing 854.10 2.81 84.95 4.36 4.36
Feed 2379.80 13.54 100.00 100.00
Gravity
Concentrate 24.10 1227.56 1.01 91.81 91.81
Concentration
Tailing 2335.70 1.12 98.99 8.19
B Concentrate 21.30 18.84 2.13 2.94 94.76
Flotation
Tailing 979.30 0.73 97.87 5.24 5.24
Concentrate 28.80 9.60 8.91 6.93 98.74
Leaching
Tailing 294.40 0.17 91.09 1.26 1.26

This number was considered amenable as The overall result for gravity concentration
using the Knelson Concentrator combined with and flotation obtained for sample B was
panning should at least recover 57% of gold 94.76%. When leaching was conducted, the
(Chen et al., 2020). improvement for the recovery only increased
by almost 4%. In this case, it can be said that
In terms of fire, the assay result compared sample B contains more free gold, which was
with the initial assay before the sample was already liberated since the gravity separation
received, as shown in Table 6 anda Table 2, process and is quite difficult to be recovered
the gravity concentration feed had almost during flotation and leaching.
similar percentages, 54.43 and 51.35 g/t. This
grade increased as there were more minerals 3.3. Testing Result for Sample C
liberated after the comminution process
conducted before the gravity concentration The result for sample C was only obtained
process. In this case, the total recovery of the from the flotation process as this was thought
gravity concentration produced from the as the only process appropriate due to the
metallurgical balance for sample A above least grade of the sample (< 2 g/t). From the
could be accepted. flotation test, it was obtained that the overall
recovery achieved was 82.74% (see Table 7).
Meanwhile, the recovery for only the flotation It is interesting to see in sample C that the
test obtained for sample A was 23.93% and sample grade increases dramatically from
4.36% for flotation concentrate and tailings, 3.43% to 18.49%. This proves that the tailing
respectively. This produced the final recovery still contains many valuable products, and it is
for the whole stages, including the gravity unfortunate if the miners do not process the
separation of sample A, which was 95.64%. It tailing and only discharge it as waste.
can be inferred from this result that panning
as the second treatment of the gravity 3.4. Comparison between Samples
separation could not give a significant result
as there was only a 4.35% of recovery Comparison made between the three samples
improvement from the tailing of both gravity shows interesting findings. First, sample A
separations to the concentration of the seems less liberated or less free gold than
flotation process. sample B. This is proved by the result obtained
for sample B that the recovery for only the
3.2. Testing Result for Sample B gravity concentration concentrate obtained
was 91.81%, which is significantly higher than
The result of the metallurgical balance for sample A of 71.72%. It is important to note
sample B is also shown in Table 6. According that before the treatment, the initial grade for
to Table 6, the recovery for only the gravity sample B before the test was conducted was
concentration concentrate obtained was roughly 10 – 17% lower than sample B (see e
91.81%. However, after being passed to the and Table 3).
flotation test, the results for sample B were
only 2.94 and 5.24% for concentrate and When the flotation tests between sample A
tailing, respectively. and B were compared, the results obtained

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were in line with the result of gravity devices, particularly for more disseminated
separation. This recovery for sample B was far gold or tailing. In the fair mechanism, as it is
lower than for sample A. Even though the quite costly to obtain a flotation device for the
Particle Size Distribution (PSD) shows an artisanal miners, the processing center should
insignificant difference in size, sample B was be in charge more.
finer than sample A. The flotation result
achieved for the concentrate of sample B was The ideal scenario proposed for Kenyan
only 2.94% compared to 23.94% of sample A. artisanal mining is that the government as the
Even if the leaching was conducted, the regulator should act as a mediator and clear
recovery only improved by 3.1%. the roles between the artisanal miners and the
processing center. At this point, artisanal
Additionally, for the three sample categories, miners can only process the ore through
the pH for the flotation process was panning and/or sell the unprocessed material
maintained between 9.1 to 9.6, and the limes (i.e., medium grade) and the tailing from the
added for samples A, B, and C were 0.7, 0.5, panning to the processing center in the
and 0.8, respectively. For sample A, due to the medium to high price range.
high grade of silver (>10 g/t) indicating the
presence of electrum, the greater reactivity of From this scenario, the artisanal miners can
silver may affect flotation (Marsden and double their incomes. At the same time, the
House, 2006). Hence, the flotation had to be processing center can gain more from the
controlled very well. Meanwhile, a comparison medium-grade and tailing using the flotation,
between sample C and the other sample could particularly as they own more capital and
not be made as the initial grade for sample C resources (i.e., cost, supporting equipment).
was far lower than both other samples. Even though deeper economic analysis is
needed, from the results presented in the
Table 7. Metallurgical balance for sample C. previous section, it is believed that the
processing center will not lose.
Weight Grade Yield Recovery
(g) (g/t) (%) (%)
With the scenario, the use of mercury for the
Feed 987.10 3.43 100.00 100
artisanal miners can be eliminated, and the
Conc.* 151.60 18.49 15.36 82.74
Tail* 835.50 0.70 84.64 17.26 cyanide usage (only for the processing center)
*Conc. = Concentrate, Tail = Tailing can be minimized due to the insignificant
improvement after being leached. This is in
3.5. Selecting the Best Processes line with the statement that the flotation
process could improve the process and reduce
From the discussion made in the previous the use of cyanide for the leaching process
sections, some suggestions can be proposed (Chen et al., 2020). As a result, the damage
for the Kenyan artisanal miners. Firstly, no to the environment can be reduced
processes can be chosen as a single significantly.
permanent solution. Every process depends
on the characteristic of the sample itself. Thus, 3.5. Lesson Learned for Acehnese Miners
to achieve the best mineral processing routes,
involvement, and cooperation of both the Regarding the deposit characteristic, the gold
artisanal miners and the processing center are samples used in this study originated from
needed. Nyanza, Kenya. The deposit is predominantly
from quartz veins and a few impregnations
Secondly, gravity concentration is more with a high proportion of alluvial gold (Pulfrey,
effective in processing medium to high-grade 1969). The gold is present in the electrum that
samples. If the miners could crush the sample contains silver, as shown in e and Table 3.
into the average size, e.g., over 100 microns,
their recovery will be significantly improved. The Nyanza site is located very close to Lake
However, this seems impossible as crushing Victoria in Kisumu. The area near Lake Victoria
and concentrating the ore can only be handled is a productive greenstones area, which lies
by the processing center, highly mechanized along the Migori Belt as part of a gold-enriched
equipment. In this case, the artisanal miners Archaean Tanzanian craton (Mshiu et al.,
still choose the panning process even though 2015). A study conducted showed that most
it is less effective. gold attachment is sulfide minerals in the form
of iron-sulfide also bounded with pyrrhotite,
The third suggestion that can be made is that molybdenite, sphalerite, and a small amount
the processing center should also have of arsenopyrite (Baris and Mutua, 2019; Mshiu
flotation equipment. The processing center et al., 2015).
can gain more gold by installing flotation

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This mineralization proves why more gold can as well as a safe and healthy living
be recovered just only with gravity environment around the mine site.
concentration and leaching. The existence of
most quartz, a harder rock, correlates with the References
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