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RET UNIT-2
The Sun can be considered the ultimate source of energy. Most forms of energy have the sun as their main source of origin.
Converting sunlight into electricity is called solar energy. This conversion of sunlight into electricity can be done by using
Photovoltaic (PV), or with concentrating solar power (CSP). Solar energy can be utilized directly or indirectly, depending on how it is
captured and converted into usable forms of energy. Here are the different types of direct and indirect solar energy utilizations: Solar
energy is the energy derived from the sun and transformed into usable forms (such as thermal or electrical energy). This transformed
energy is then used in multiple ways like in transportation, water heating, electricity, cooking, in-room heating, and much more. Also,
Solar energy is even used in airplanes and satellites.
To convert sun rays into a usable form of energy, there are primarily two methods of conversion to follow:
Direct / Active
Indirect / Passive

What is Indirect Solar Energy?

When one form of energy is converted to another useful energy source and we need more than one process for the conversion, then the
energy obtained is called indirect energy.
Likewise, when the energy is obtained indirectly from the sun’s energy via other energy forms caused by sunlight, it is thus called
indirect solar energy.

For example, Solar radiation warms the oceans, thus the ocean water is then converted to vapors in the air which then condenses as
rain to feed rivers, into which dams and turbines are located to convert that flow of water into hydropower.

Types of Indirect Solar Energy

Most of the electric plants are producing electricity using indirect energy conversion processes.
Some ways to utilize solar energy are:

 Wind
 Wave/Tidal
 Ocean Thermal
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 Hydro Energy
 Geothermal Energy
 Biomass

What is Direct Solar Energy?

The energy obtained from a single conversion of sunlight using various technologies and resulting in a usable form of energy is called
direct solar energy. Direct solar energy can be used for sunlight, heating or for generating electricity. Direct solar energy can be
obtained using any of the following methods:

 Thermal
 Photovoltaic
Solar radiations can either be absorbed in solar collectors to provide hot water for washing and space heating or they can be converted
directly into electricity using photovoltaic (PV) panels which are normally mounted on the roofs or as arrays in fields. Solar panels are
the array of photovoltaic cells that converts light into electricity using the photovoltaic effect.

Difference Between Direct and Indirect Solar Energy

Solar radiation is the main driving force behind natural processes taking place on the earth and is the indirect source of all renewable
forms of energy. Even the origins of fossil fuels, which were produced as a result of the decay of plants and animals millions of years
ago, lie in solar energy. As we have discussed in the above writing, both direct and indirect solar energy have some similarities and
differences.

Direct Solar Energy Indirect Solar Energy

1. Single conversion of sunlight involves some technologies or 1. When we need multiple transformations of sunlight involving
effects that result in a usable form of energy, then the energy some technologies or effects to convert the sun radiations into a
produced is called direct solar energy. usable form of energy, then the energy produced is called
Indirect solar energy.
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2. In the case of direct conversion, sunlight is directly converted 2. Indirect solar energy goes through several changes and
into electricity or heat. conversions or energy cycles to make it usable.

3. For example, Solar panels are used to collect solar rations 3. For example, the variation of temperature caused by the sun
which then they convert into electricity. on the earth’s surface and the rotation of the earth leads to the
flow of wind, and thus it is called one of the indirect forms of
solar energy.

Indirect Forms of Solar Energy: Explained

01. Wind Energy

When atmospheric air heats up by sun radiation, the air gets lifted up and the cold air takes its previous place, this circulation of air
results in the flowing of wind. Wind turbines are used to convert wind energy into electricity. The flow of the wind produces kinetic
energy that rotates turbine blades and thus, electricity is generated. Wind speed and air density are the factors that affect the amount of
energy generated by a wind turbine.

Benefits of Wind Energy

 Wind energy is a clean renewable source of energy and produces no pollution.

 It is sustainable, i.e. wind energy is replenishing the present energy needs without causing any long-term damage to the
environment.
 These turbines are highly efficient and can convert half of the wind hitting them into electricity.
 Wind Energy performs best in coastal areas, on the top of round-shaped mountains and plains.
 Wind turbines last for around 20-25 years.

02. Biomass Energy

Due to the process of photosynthesis, plants receive energy from the sun, and then they are used in the production of biomass.
Biomass includes plants, starch, manures, and food crops like corn and sugarcane, etc. Biogas is a combustible gas mixture that is
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produced from the fermentation of biomass by bacteria. Thus, Biomass energy is one form of indirect solar energy. Biomass is used to
produce steam (biogas) in a biomass power plant. This steam runs the turbine and makes electricity from waste.

Benefits of Biomass Energy

 Biomass energy is eco-friendly and green.

 It reduces soil and water pollution and also helps in the reduction of the greenhouse effect.
 The gas generated through bio-digestion is non-polluting.
 Setting up a Biogas power plant requires less initial investment.

03. Ocean Thermal Energy

When sun radiations fall on the surface of the ocean, the temperature of the water on the surface of the ocean increases while the
temperature deep into the ocean remains cold. This results in temperature differences in the ocean layers and the differences are used
in generating electricity.

Benefits of Ocean Thermal Energy

 It is marine renewable energy technology.

 The bigger the temperature difference between layers, the higher will be the efficiency.

04. Hydro Energy

When rainwater gets vaporized by solar heat and gets condensed in the form of clouds which then turn out as rain or snow over the
mountains. This water runs down with potential energy and converts into hydropower in the hydel power plant. The accelerated water
is used to spin the blades of the turbine. These turbines then convert mechanical energy into electricity. The, hydropower is an indirect
form of Solar Energy.

Benefits of Hydro Energy

 It is renewable energy and creates no pollution.

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 Hydro Energy is highly efficient and sustainable.

 It plays a major role in economic development. Also, Industrial countries produce nearly 80% of electricity from hydropower.

05. Tidal Energy

When the sun or moon is overhead of the ocean, the water is attracted towards them due to the gravitational force and thus causing a
temporary increase in sea level. Due to these gravitational pulls, there are generally two high tides and two low tides per day, because
of the rotation of the earth. The distance between the moon and the earth is much closer than between the sun and earth, so, the
gravitational effect of the moon is much more than that of the sun on earth. The intensity of the water from the rise and fall of tides is
a form of kinetic energy. The movement of water is used to push a turbine using certain methods resulting in the generation of
electricity.

Benefits of Tidal Energy

 Tidal Energy is also a form of renewable energy having no harmful emissions.

 In the case of tidal power, there is predictable energy output because tides are predictable and constant because of gravitational
forces.
 Tidal power can last longer and be more cost-effective than other renewable technologies.

06. Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is heat inside the core of the earth. It is the underground heat leftover from the molten rocks and the radioactive
decay of materials that formed earth billions of years ago. Geothermal Energy can be harnessed using any of the three methods:

 Using HydroThermal Reservoir

 Using Hot or Dry Rock
 Using Heat Pump
It is used for cooking, bathing, space heating, electrical power generation, and other uses.

Benefits of Geothermal Energy

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 These power plants produce electricity consistently irrespective of the weather conditions.
 Since there is no requirement for combustion, geothermal energy is environmentally friendly.
 It is reliable, sustainable and highly efficient.
Solar Cell: Working Principle & Construction

Figure-1

Solar cell is the basic unit of solar energy generation system where electrical energy is extracted directly from light energy without any
intermediate process. The working of a solar cell solely depends upon its photovoltaic effect, hence a solar cell also known as
photovoltaic cell. A solar cell is basically a semiconductor p-n junction device. It is formed by joining p-type (high concentration of
hole or deficiency of electron) and n-type (high concentration of electron) semiconductor material. at the junction excess electrons from
n-type try to diffuse to p-side and vice-versa. Movement of electrons to the p- side exposes positive ion cores in n-side, while movement
of holes to the n-side exposes negative ion cores in the p- side. This results in an electric field at the junction and forming the depletion
region. When sunlight falls on the solar cell, photons with energy greater than band gap of the semiconductor are absorbed by the cell
and generate electron-hole (e-h) pair. These e-h pairs migrate respectively to n- and p- side of the pn junction due to electrostatic force
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of the field across the junction. In this way a potential difference is established between two sides of the cell. Typically, a solar or
photovoltaic cell has negative front contact and positive back contact. A semiconductor p-n junction is in the middle of these two contacts
like a battery. If these two sides are connected by an external circuit, current will start flowing from positive to negative terminal of the
solar cell. This is basic working principle of a solar cell. For silicon, the band gap at room temperature is Eg = 1.1 eV and the diffusion
potential is UD = 0.5 to 0.7 V. Construction of a Si solar cell is depicted in figure-1.

A typical circuit for measuring I-V characteristics is shown in Figure-2. From this characteristics various parameters of the solar cell
can be determined, such as: short-circuit current (Isc), the open-circuit voltage (Voc), the fill factor (FF) and the efficiency. The rating
of a solar panel depends on these parameters.
The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage across the solar cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is
short circuited). is due to the generation and collection of light-generated carriers. For an ideal solar cell at most moderate resistive
loss mechanisms, the short-circuit current and the light- generated current are identical. Therefore, the short-circuit current is the
largest current which may be drawn from the solar cell.
The open-circuit voltage, VOC is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell, and this occurs at zero current.
Fill factor
The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum current and voltage respectively from a solar cell. However, at
both of these operating points, the power from the solar cell is zero. The "fill factor", more commonly known by its abbreviation "FF",
is a parameter which, in conjunction with Voc and Isc, determines the maximum power from a solar cell. The FF is defined as the
ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc.
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Figure-2 Graph of cell output current (red line) and power (blue line) as a function of voltage. Also shown are the cell short-circuit
current (Isc) and open-circuit voltage (VOC) points, as well as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp).

i-v Characteristics for a solar cell

Solar cell generator is neither constant voltage nor constant current source means that current is proportional to solar insolation and
voltage is a function of the current required by the load [Khan B.H]. but commonly is known as current source.

A typical i-v characteristic of the solar cell for a certain ambient irradiation S and a certain fixed cell temperature T is shown in Figure-3.
For a resistive load, the load characteristic is a straight line with slope I/V=1/R. It should be pointed out that the power delivered to the load
depends on the value of the resistance only.

Figure 3 A typical, current-voltage i-v curve for a solar cell for different load.
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However, if the load R is small, the cell operates in the region M-N of the curve Figure.3, where the cell behaves as a constant current
source, almost equal to the short circuit current. On the other hand, if the load R is large, the cell operates on the regions P-S of the curve, the
cell behaves more as a constant voltage source, almost equal to the open-circuit voltage [Aachour Bbetka, 2006].

Short circuit current I SC

This is the short circuit current of the solar cell. It is the almost equal to the I ph . It can be noted that the cell is safe with a short circuit.

The magnitude of this current depends on the area of the cell and is directly proportional to the solar insolation. Most of the current day silicon
cell give about 2-3 amp per cell (area 60-100sq cm). At a standard insolation of 1000W/m2 and a cell temperature of 28 degrees centigrade.

Isc = Iph. It is the greatest value of the current generated by a cell. It is produce by the short circuit conditions: V = 0, [S R Bhatt].

Open circuit voltageV𝑜𝑐

Correspond to the voltage drop across the diode (p-n junction), when it is transverse by the photocurrent Iph (namely IL = Iph), namely
when the generated current is I = 0. It reflects the voltage of the cell in the night and it can be mathematically expressed as:

nkT  I L  I  mkTC
VOC  ln    Vt ln  L  where Vt = is known as thermal voltage T is the absolute cell temperature. The open circuit voltage is
q  I0   I0  e
about 0.5v for mono & poly crystal solar cells and about 0.8v for amorphous, Voc varies logarithmically with solar insolation, hence does not vary
very much. It is sensitive to temperature. [Fransisco, 2005].

Maximum power point

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The operating point A ( Vmax I max ) in Figure1.3, at which the power dissipated in the resistive load is maximum, Pmax  Vmax I max . Maximum

Pmax I max Vmax

efficiency is the ratio between the maximum power and the incident light power.    Where, S a is the ambient irradiation and
Pin AS a
A is the cell area.

1.3.4 The Fill factor

FF of a solar cell is a measure of the quality of the cell, ideal cell has a fill factor of unity. i.e. perfect rectangular i-v characteristics and is
the ratio of the maximum power that can be delivered to the load and the product of I SC and VOC, the secrete to maximizing the fill factor is the

maximizing the ratio of photocurrent to reverse saturation current, while minimizing series resistance and maximizing shunt resistance within the
Vmax I max
solar cell FF  [Fransisco, 2005].The conversion efficiency of a cell is the ratio of the maximum converted power PC  Vmax I max to
VOC I SC

PC
the input solar power( PI ) , given as   (1)
PI

Vmax I max FF  I SCVOC

So equation (1) can be rewritten as   =  [Khan B.H]. The value of fill factor is 0.7 for good cells however its
SolarPower SolarPower
value for a commercial silicon cell is in the range of 0.5 to 0.83. The fill factor diminishes as the cell temperature is increased. [M. González-Longatt,
2005].

1.3.5 Effect of Ambient Conditions On i-v Characteristics of PV Cell

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(a)
(b)
Figure .4: Change in cell i-v characteristics with change in
(a) ambient irradiation (b) the cell temperature

The i-v characteristics of a PV cell is weather dependent, the effect of change in ambient temperature and solar insolation on the
i-v characteristics is shown in Figure 4 that the open circuit voltage decreases linearly with the increase in the cell temperature and open
circuit voltage increases logarithmically with the ambient irradiation, while the short circuit current is a linear function of the ambient
irradiation. The arrow shows in which sense the irradiation and the cell temperature, respectively, increase [Hansen, 2000].
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Photovoltaic Modules and array

For practical use, solar cells can be electrically connected in different ways: series or parallel to increase the voltage and current
ratings, respectively. A series combination results in addition of voltage and parallel combination results in addition of current. The
effect of series connection and parallel combinations of two cells on i-v characteristics is shown in Figure-5 [Principle of solar
engineering].

A PV module formed by ns series connected PV cells, and, A PV array formed by series-parallel connection of Np × Ns modules.
Individual modules can be connected in series, parallel, or both to increase either output voltage or current. Therefore, cells are connected
together in series in one unit, called module, to increase the voltage. Several such modules are connected in series parallel combination
and are installed on one structure to form a panel. Many such panels may be connected in series or parallel to form a PV array as shown
in Figure .
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Figure-5 Effect of Series and parallel connection on i-v characteristics of cells

Figure-6 PV generator hierarchy

Materials Used in Solar Cell

The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap close to 1.5ev. Commonly used materials are-

1. Silicon.
2. GaAs. (Gallium Arsenide)
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3. CdTe. (Cadmium telluride)

4. CuInSe2 (Copper indium selenide)
Criteria for Materials to be Used in Solar Cell
1. Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev.
2. It must have high optical absorption.
3. It must have high electrical conductivity.
4. The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the material must be low.
Advantages of Solar Cell
1. No pollution associated with it.
2. It must last for a long time.
3. No maintenance cost.
Disadvantages of Solar Cell
1. It has high cost of installation.
2. It has low efficiency.
3. During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will not get solar energy.
Uses of Solar Generation Systems
1. It may be used to charge the batteries.
2. Used in electric vehicle.
3. It is used to power calculators and wrist watches.
4. It can be used in spacecraft to provide electrical energy.
5. To make solar power plant.
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Types of Solar Thermal Power Plants

In an effort to utilize solar energy for power generation, various systems are being tried.

These are:

 Low temperature solar power plant using flat plate collector.

 Medium temperature solar power plant using concentrated solar collectors.

 High temperature solar power plant using tower system.

(I) Low Temperature Solar Power System:

1. The low temperature solar power plants use the working fluid temperatures in the range of 60°C to 100°C which can be obtained using flat plate type
collectors or by solar ponds.

2. The efficiency of such plants is only 2% to 3%.

3. The working fluids used in such plants are the fluids having low boiling temperatures at atmospheric pressure.

4. The fluids used are refrigerant R-11, butane gas etc.

5. These systems require storage system.

(a) Low temperature flat plate collector solar power system:

1. The schematic diagram of a low temperature solar power generation system using flat plate collector is shown in Figure A. Since the water can be only
heated 80°C in flat collectors, the system needs to use a working fluid having low boiling temperature like a butane gas.

2. The system consists of an array of flat plate collectors. The cold water is circulated into the collector with the help of a circulating pump.

3. The water gets heated in the solar collector due to solar radiations upto a temperature of about 80°C. The heated water is circulated in a heat exchanger
called butane boiler, where it generates the butane gas at high pressure.
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4. The butane gas is supplied to a butane turbine to produce mechanical power due to expansion of butane gas. The vapour coming out of the turbine is
condensed in a condenser and sent back for recirculation with the help of butane feed pump.

5. The mechanical power output of turbine is converted into electric power by generator.

Figure A

(b) Solar pond electric power plant:

1. The schematic diagram using solar pond for electric power generation is shown in Figure B. The system works on Rankine cycle using R-11 as
refrigerant.

2. The system uses a solar pond for collection and storage of solar energy. The heat of hot brine solution from solar pond is used to evaporate the working
substance R-11 at constant pressure in the boiler.

3. This vapour is used to run the vapour turbine to produce mechanical power which is utilized to run a generator to produce the electrical power. The
exhaust of the turbine is condensed in the condenser at constant pressure with the help of cooling water (returned from cooling tower which is not
shown).

4. The condensate is returned to the boiler by a pump. Thus the cycle is repeated.
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5. Low temperature thermal power plant are only suitable for very low power generation having very low efficiency, hence these are not used in practice.

Figure B

(II) Medium Temperature Solar Power Plant:

1. These systems employ an array of parabolic trough concentrating collectors spread over a large area. The general range of working temperatures are
between 250°C to 400°C.

2. Parabolic in line focusing type collectors are used and generally preferred because of low cost and require sun tracking in one plane only as compared to
paraboloid concentrating collectors having higher cost and require sun tracking in two planes.

3. The system works on Rankine cycle. The schematic diagram of a medium temperature solar power plant using in line parabolic trough concentrators is
shown in Figure C.

4. The system consists of an array of large parabolic trough collector are installed with sun tracking device, to collect the solar radiations which is used to
heat a fluid (water). This heat is transferred to storage tank and finally to feed water where the steam is generated in the steam generator.

5. This steam is utilized to run a turbine coupled to a electric generator. The mechanical energy developed by the turbine is converted into electric power by
the generator.
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6. The exhaust of steam turbine is condensed in the condenser with the help of cold water circulated in the condenser. The condensate is returned to the
boiler with the help of feed pump.

7. The hot water leaving the condenser is either sent to cooling tower or its heat energy can be used as process heat if the plant is used in an industry. A
plant can be developed using air as working fluid instead of steam based on Brayton cycle as discussed earlier.

8. A 30 MW plant have been installed in Rajasthan under the department of non-conventional energy sources.

Figure C

(III) High Temperature Solar Thermal Power Plants:

1. For efficient utilization of solar heat energy into electrical energy, the working fluid has to be supplied at high temperatures. Large solar thermal plants
can be built in the capacity upto 200 MW.

2. Such plants use paraboloid dish collectors or heliostats. These systems have high thermal efficiency. Such systems are briefly discussed below.

(a) Solar thermal power plants using dish collectors:

1. The solar dish collectors receive solar radiations which are collected at a common focusing point. Small volumes of the fluid are heated at this point to
high temperatures.

2. This heat is utilized to run a prime mover based on the Sterling cycle. A similar system has been built at Hyderabad which generates 30 kW power at
about 30% efficiency.
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3. It uses four dish collectors in series to generate high pressure and temperature and utilizes this steam for generation of electric power in the conventional
system working on Rankine cycle. Due to the limitations of size and the small quantity of fluid, dish type solar power plants are not suitable for
generation of power beyond few kW for this reason such plants are not built for large power generation.

(b) Central tower receiver power plant using heliostats:

1. Such plants use central tower receiver. It uses an array of plane mirrors called heliostats which are individually controlled and tracked to reflect the solar
radiations on a receiver kept on a tower of about 500 m height. Schematic diagram of a solar tower receiver power plant is shown in Figure D.

2. The feed water in the absorber-receiver called boiler is converted into high temperature steam of about 600°C-700°C. This steam is supplied in a
conventional steam power plant coupled to an electric generator to generate electrical power as shown.

3. A thermal storage system (not shown) can be provided for use on cloudy days. A pilot plant of 50 kW was built in Itly.

4. However, the plants based on the system have been commissioned in various countries in capacities 1 MW to 10 MW.
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SOLAR COLLECTOR: A solar collector is a device that collects and/or concentrates solar radiation from the Sun. These devices are
primarily used for active solar heating and allow for the heating of water for personal use. These collectors are generally mounted on the roof
and must be very sturdy as they are exposed to a variety of different weather conditions

TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOR:

Flat Plate Collectors:

The flat-plate solar collectors are probably the most

fundamental and most studied technology for solar-
powered domestic hot water systems. The overall idea
behind this technology is pretty simple. The Sun heats a
dark flat surface, which collect as much energy as
possible, and then the energy is transferred to water,
air, or other fluid for further use.

These are the main components of a typical flat-plate

solar collector:

 Black surface - absorbent of the incident solar energy

 Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber, but prevents radiative and convective heat loss from the
surface
 Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector
 Support structure to protect the components and hold them in place
 Insulation covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses
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Figure: Schematic of a flat plate solar collector with liquid transport medium. The
solar radiation is absorbed by the black plate and transfers heat to the fluid in the tubes.
The thermal insulation prevents heat loss during fluid transfer; the screens reduce the
heat loss due to convection and radiation to the atmosphere

Some advantages of the flat-plate collectors are that they are:

 Easy to manufacture
 Low cost
 Collect both beam and diffuse radiation
 Permanently fixed (no sophisticated positioning or tracking equipment
is required)
 Little maintenance
Line focus Collector: The solar radiation coming from a particular direction is collected over the area of the reflecting surface and is
concentrated at the Focus, F of the Parabola.
It consists of a movable parabolic cylindrical mirror (reflector) that focuses the direct radiation on a receiver tube (Absorber tube). The
receiver tube is located along the axis of the collector
The mirror rotates about its longitudinal axis, tracking the sun throughout the day. The solar energy focused on the receiver tube heats
a fluid at about 400° C.
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Figure Line Focus Collectors

Parabolic Trough Collector
 It is a line focusing type collector. In this type of collector, the
solar radiations falling on the area of the parabolic reflector are concentrated at the focus of the parabola.
 When the reflector is manufactured in the form of a trough with the parabolic cross-section, the solar radiations gets focused
along a line. An absorber pipe is placed along this line and a working fluid (usually synthetic oil or water) flows through it.
 When the focused solar radiations fall on the absorber pipe, it heats the fluid to a high temperature. Then the heat absorbed by
the working fluid is transferred to water for producing steam.
 The focus of solar radiations changes with the change in sun‘s elevation. In order to focus the solar radiations on the absorber
pipe, either the trough or the collector pipe is rotated continuously about the axis of the absorber pipe.
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Figure: Parabolic Trough Collector

Power Tower Receiver / Tower with Central

Receiver
In this collector, the receiver is located at
the top of the tower. It has a large number
of independently-moving flat mirrors
(heliostats) spread over a large area of
ground to focus the reflected solar radiations on the receiver. The heliostats are installed all around the central tower. Each
heliostat is rotated into two directions so as to track the sun. The solar radiations reflected from heliostats are absorbed by the
receiver mounted on a tower of about 500 m height. The tower supports a bundle of vertical tubes containing the working
fluid. The working fluid in the absorber receiver is converted into the high-temperature steam of about 600oC – 700oC. This
steam is supplied to a conventional steam power plant coupled to an electric generator to generate electric power.
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Parabolic Dish Collector:

 In these collectors, the receiver is placed at the focal point of the concentrator. The solar beam radiations are focused at a point
where the receiver (absorber) is placed. The solar radiations are collected in the receiver.
 A small volume of fluid is heated in the receiver to a high temperature. This heat is used to run a prime mover coupled with a
generator.
 A typical parabolic dish collector has a dish of 6 m diameter. This collector requires two-axis tracking. It can yield
temperatures up to 3000⁰C.
 Due to the limitations of size and the small quantity of fluid, dish type solar collectors are suitable for only small power
generation (up to few kW).
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Figure: Parabolic Dish Collector