St Lawrence College

Ms Kaan

Lower 6th AS- Biology Pack #8

UNIT 2: TOPIC 3A
3A Cell structure

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Overview:

Specification points Rate your Questions Extra

understan practiced research
ding carried out
3.1 know that all living organisms are made of cells, sharing
some common features
3.2 understand how the cells of multicellular organisms are
organised into tissues, tissues into organs, and organs into
organ systems
3.3 (i) know the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells, including
nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes and Golgi
apparatus
3.3 (ii) understand the function of the organelles listed in (i)
3.4 understand the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(rER) and the Golgi apparatus in protein transport within cells,
including their role in the formation of extracellular enzymes
3.5 (i) know the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells, including
cell wall, capsule, plasmid, flagellum, pili, ribosomes and
circular DNA
3.5 (ii) understand the function of the structures listed in (i)

3.6 be able to recognise the organelles in 3.3 from electron

microscope (EM) images
3.7 (i) know how magnification and resolution can be
achieved using light and electron microscopy
3.7 (ii) understand the importance of staining specimens in
microscopy
3.8 CORE PRACTICAL 5
(i) use a light microscope to make observations and labelled
drawings of suitable animal cells
3.8 CORE PRACTICAL 5
(ii) use a graticule with a microscope to make measurements
and understand the concept of scale
 1. COMMON EUKARYOTIC CELL ORGANELLES
1. ________________________________________

 Present in all eukaryotic cells, the nucleus is relatively large (1-20µm)

 It is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, which has
many pores.
o Nuclear pores are important channels for allowing mRNA and ribosomes to travel out of the
nucleus, as well as allowing enzymes, e.g. DNA polymerases to travel in
 Inside the envelope is the nucleoplasm which contains nucleic acids (DNA/RNA) and protein.
o The DNA helix must be packaged (condensed) to fit in the nucleus. It does this by wrapping
around the proteins, mainly histones.
o When not dividing, it is loosely packaged into chromatin.
o When dividing, it is tightly wound into chromosomes.
 Usually, at least one or more darkly stained regions of the nucleus can be observed under a microscope;
these regions are termed nucleolus (plural nucleoli) and are the sites of ribosome production

Inside the nucleus:

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 2. ____________________________________________________

 Tiny rod-like structures (1µm

x10 µm), just visible with light
microscope
 Site of aerobic respiration in
eukaryotic cells
 Have an outer membrane
and an inner membrane, which
is folded to form cristae, which
give a large surface area for ATP
production
 The matrix: contains
enzymes needed for aerobic
respiration, and small circular
mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes, which are needed for replication of mitochondria before cell division
 Note: More of these are present in energy-demanding cells
 Extension: Give any examples of cells which will contain many and any which will contain less mitochondria.

3. ___________________________________________________

 Are the site of translation of mRNA in protein synthesis

 Can be found as free organelles in the cytoplasm of all cells or as part of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum in eukaryotic cells
 Note: The proteins made from free ribosomes in the cytoplasm stay in the cytoplasm. Those made on
RER can be secreted out of the cell or become attached to the cell surface membrane.
 They are not surrounded by a
membrane
 Each is a complex of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and proteins
 80s ribosomes are found in
eukaryotic cells. When broken
into their individual subunits,
they are made of a 40S small
subunit and a 60S large subunit
(1 rRNA: 1 protein)
 70s ribosomes are found in
prokaryotes, mitochondria, and
chloroplasts (30S and 50S
subunits and 2 rRNA: 1 protein)

Extension: Why do mitochondria and ribosomes provide good evidence for the endosymbiosis theory?

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 4. __________________________________________________

 There are usually pairs of these near the

nucleus.
 They are made of hollow fibres knows
as microtubules
 Microtubules are filaments of protein that
can be used to move substances
around inside a cell, as well as to support the
shape of a cell from the inside
 When a cell divides, the centrioles pull apart
to produce a spindle of microtubules that are
involved in the movement of chromosomes.
 Two centrioles at right angles to each other
form a centrosome which organises
the spindle fibres during cell division
 They are not found in plants and fungi

5. _________________________________________________________

 Specialist forms of vesicle which

contain hydrolytic enzymes
 Appear as dark, spherical bodies in the
cytoplasm of most cells.
 The role of lysosomes is to break down
materials such as worn-out organelles or food
vacuoles, into molecules that can be reused.

 Due to the fact they are surrounded by a

membrane, they frequently fuse with:

a) Each other
b) With a membrane-bound vacuole which contains food, an obsolete organelle, or a phagosome.
c) Fuse with cell surface membrane to release
extracellular enzymes

 They are used extensively by cells of the immune

system (e.g. phagocytes)
 When a cell is too old, needs to be removed during
development, has a mutation or is under stress, then
its lysosomes rupture, releasing enzymes which
destroy the entire contents of the cell. This is
programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis.

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 6. ______________________________________________________

 3D network of cavities surrounded by membranes, spreading throughout the cytoplasm

There are two types: rough and smooth

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

o RER is formed from folds of membrane continuous with the nuclear envelope surrounding the
nucleus
o The surface of RER is covered in 80S ribosomes. Its folding provides a large surface area for the
synthesis of all these proteins.
o The role of the RER is to process polypeptides made on the ribosomes. It folds them into their
tertiary shape, stores and transports them.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
o SER is also formed from folds of membrane but its function is distinct from the RER, being
involved in the production, processing and storage of lipids, carbohydrates and steroids
o SER does not have ribosomes on its surface

Extension: Explain which type of cells will contain a large number of:

a) RER?

b) SER?

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 7. ___________________________________________________
 Sometimes known as the Golgi body
 Has a close link to but is not joined to the RER- they receive proteins in vesicles from the RER.
 Consists of flattened sacs of membrane formed by vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum fusing
together. Cisternae refer to any of the flattened disks of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi
apparatus.
o Can be distinguished from the SER by its regular, stacked appearance (looks like Wifi symbol).
Also further from nuclear envelope.
 The vesicles fuse with the membrane sacs of the Golgi apparatus and the protein enters the Golgi
stacks.
 The role of the Golgi apparatus is to modify proteins and lipids before packaging them into transport
vesicles (they finish the modifications that started in the ER).
o E.g. Carbohydrates are added to proteins to form glycoproteins e.g. mucus
 The vesicles then pinch off the Golgi and transport the proteins and lipids to their required destination.
They are either:
 Exported from the cell by fusing with cell surface membrane and released, e.g. hormones
such as insulin or extracellular digestive enzymes
 Fuse with membrane to insert membrane-bound proteins e.g. receptor-sites (they do
this in the correct orientation!)
 Put into lysosomes, e.g. hydrolytic enzymes
 Delivered to other membrane-bound organelles

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Summary:

8. ____MEMBRANES____
 The cell (surface)
membrane or plasma membrane
surrounds the cell and controls
the exchange of materials
between the internal cell
environment and the external
environment.
 It is important to distinguish
this from the intracellular
membranes surrounding most
organelles. Although they are
both phospholipid bilayers which
are partially permeable, the
intracellular membranes also play
other roles like localise enzymes in reaction pathways (e.g. respiration in mitochondria) and keep
biological molecules separate (e.g. enzymes in lysosomes)

 Name 4 organelles bound by single membranes:

 Name 2 organelles bound by double membranes:

 Name 2 organelles which are NOT membrane-bound:

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Interpreting electron micrographs

The photographs below were taken using a transmission electron microscope (TEM). They show the
ultrastructure of some organelles. Remember that these photos are showing only parts of cells, not whole cells.
Some of the photographs show more than one type of organelles. The questions refer to the main organelle
indicated in the photo.

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Relative abundance- possible exam question:

Attempts can Attempts can be made to deduce cell function based on the relative abundance of various
organelles:

 Mitochondria – Cells with many mitochondria typically undertake energy-consuming processes (e.g.
neurons, muscle cells)
 ER – Cells with extensive ER networks undertake secretory activities (e.g. plasma cells, exocrine gland
cells)
 Lysosomes – Cells rich in lysosomes tend to undertake digestive processes (e.g. phagocytes)
 Chloroplasts – Cells with chloroplasts undergo photosynthesis (e.g. plant leaf tissue but not root tissue)

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AN EXAM-STYLE QUESTION

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 2. CELL ORGANISATION
1.2.1 Cells - The basic functional and structural units in an organism.

a) Eukaryotic animal cell ultrastructure

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 b) Eukaryotic plant cells

*= structures only present in plant cells 11

1.2.2 Tissues- A group of cells of similar structure working together to perform a
particular function.

There are 4 types of tissue in the human body:

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Some examples of types of epithelial tissue:

Task: Explain how the following tissues is related to their function:

a) Squamous epithelium lining an alveolus

b) Ciliated epithelium lining a bronchus

c) Muscle tissue in the biceps muscle

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1.2.3 Organs- A group of different tissues working together to perform a particular
function.

Task: Name the tissues found in the following organs:

a) Stomach

b) Leaf

Extension: Describe the functions of each tissue.

1.2.4 Organ systems- A group of organs with related functions, working together to
perform body functions within the organism.

Task: Name the organs found in the following organ systems:

a) Digestive system

b) Respiratory system

c) Circulatory system

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Extension: Identify the following organ systems

Extension: Choose one of the systems in the human body and describe briefly the cells, tissues and organs
found within that system.

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 3. MICROSCOPES
What can we see with microscopes?

Units check

How many micrometers (µm) are in:

1. 10mm?

2. 8mm?

3. 1cm?

4. 2.5cm?

5. 13cm?

6. 29cm?

7. 14cm?

8. 0.2cm?

9. 1m?

10. 10 nm?

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 1. The light microscope

How does it work?

• A specimen or thin slice of biological material is placed on the stage. This can be living tissue.

• Staining is important to allow for identification of a cell or cell parts under the microscope:

• Haematoxylin- stains nuclei of plant and animal cells purple, blue or brown

• Methylene blue- stains the nuclei of animal cells blue

• Acetocarmine- stains chromosomes red in dividing nuclei in both animal and plant cells

• Iodine- stains starch-containing material in plant cells blue-black

• This is illuminated from underneath with a light source.

• The objective lens produces a magnified and inverted image.

• The eyepiece lens focus this image at the eye.

• Total magnification= Magnification of objective lens x magnification of eyepiece lens

• Resolution is between 0.2-0.7 µm (i.e. 0.0002-0.0007mm). The resolution of a light microscope is

limited by the wavelength of light; the wavelength of light is too long to allow for high resolution.

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Extension: Our microscopes have objective lenses of x10, x20, and x40. Calculate the 3 possible total
magnifications in school labs.

The difference between magnification and resolution

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2. Electron microscopes
 Electron microscopes use electrons to form an image. A beam of electrons has a much smaller
wavelength than light, so an electron microscope can distinguish (resolve) two objects that are
extremely close together, giving a more detailed image.

 They have a maximum resolution of around 0.0002 µm or 0.2 nm or 0.0000007mm (i.e. around 1000
times greater than that of optical microscopes)

o They be used to observe small organelles such as ribosomes, the ER, chromosomes in mitosis.
They are images of a snapshot in time.

 The maximum useful magnification of electron microscopes is about ×1,500,000

Specimen preparation

 For the microscope to work, the specimens must in a vacuum, so they are always dead.

 There is lengthy treatment (freeze-fracturing, dehydration, etc) required to prepare specimens means
that artefacts can be introduced

 Stains usually are done using heavy metal ions e.g. lead and uranium. This improves the scattering of
electrons which produces an image with more contrast.

How does it work?

 Electron microscopes fire a beam of electrons at the specimen

 The electrons are picked up by an electromagnetic lens which

then shows the image

 The image is displayed on a monitor. They do not produce a

colour image. Colour is added using a computer.

 There are two types of electron microscopes:

o Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)- create

micrographs with 2D images similar to light microscope,
but with higher resolution as internal structure of
organelles is visible.

o Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)- create

micrographs with lower magnification and resolution but are 3D and can be very striking. False
colours usually added.

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 Light microscope Electron microscope
Radiation source

Specimen

Fixing/staining

Maximum magnification

Maximum resolution

What can be viewed?

Advantages

Disadvantages

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EXAM QUESTION PRACTICE

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 4. PROKARYOTIC CELLS
4.1 Common bacterial cell organelles

My description What am I?
I am the main genetic material for the bacterium. I am a coiled strand
of DNA not contained in a membrane-bound nucleus.
I am made of a 30S and 50S subunit. I synthesise proteins.

I have a similar function to those in eukaryotes but I am only found on

the cell surface. In prokaryotes though I am also the site of some
respiratory enzymes.
I am a smaller circle of DNA coding for particular bacterial phenotypes
like antibiotic resistance or the production of a toxin. I can reproduce
myself independently of the main DNA loop. I am easily transferable
between bacteria.
I am hypertonic to the external solution, so water tends to move in by
osmosis.
I am made up of peptidoglycan. I prevent swelling and bursting.

I am present in only some bacteria. I am sometimes made of starch,

gelatin, protein or glycolipid. I can help a bacterium hide from the
immune system by covering cell surface markers and prevent drying.
I am an infolding of the cell membrane present in some bacteria. My
function is widely debated. I am either an artefact or involved in
enzyme activity.
I am made of a many-stranded helix of protein and rotate rapidly
(about 100 revolutions per second!) to help a bacteria move itself.
I am a thread-like protein projection present in some bacteria. I attach
to a host and am involved in sexual reproduction. Sometimes however
a bacteriophage (virus) might use me as an entry point!
I am stored as a reserve of carbohydrate and energy.

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4.2 Classifying bacteria

1. By shape

2. By respiratory requirements

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 3. By Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial staining

Parameter Gram-positive bacteria Gram-negative bacteria

Cell wall A single-layered, smooth cell
wall.

Cell wall thickness 20-80 nm 8-10 nm

Peptidoglycan layer It is a thin layer

Often single-layered

Teichoic acids Present

Lipopolysaccharide Present

Outer membrane Mostly present

Lipid content Very low

Resistance to antibiotics

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Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative bacteria staining:

 Crystal violet/iodine complex gets trapped in peptidoglycan

 When you add alcohol-
o Gram += thick peptidoglycan wall resists decolouring
o Gram -= dissolves LPS outer membrane and is washed out from thin peptidoglycan
 When red safranin counterstain is added:
o Gram += does not pick up counterstain as it contains violet/iodine complex already.
o Gram - = pick up counterstain, appearing red/pink.

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4.3 How antibiotics work

Task: Would you use these to target Gram positive or negative bacteria or both? Explain.
Description of how antibiotic Would you use Explain
works these to target
Gram-
positive/negative
bacteria/both?
Beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin
and cephalosporins) inhibit the
formation of the peptidoglycan
cell wall.

Glycopeptide antibiotics
(vancomycin) cannot penetrate
outer membrane but can even be
effective against those with
antibiotic resistance.
Polypeptide antibiotics
(polymixins) have serious side
effects. Would be used as a last
resort. Interact with phospholipids
on outer membrane.

Target prokaryotic ribosomes and

protein synthesis.

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SOME EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

Q1.

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Q2.

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