Engineering Thermodynamics

(CHE 201)

E. Betiku, PhD
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,
Nigeria
 Chapter 6

Control Volume Analysis using Energy

Examples of Natural Control Volume (Open System)

Biology Botany
Control Volume (Open System)

An Automobile Engine
Control Volume (Open System)
Conservation of mass principle

time rate of change of mass time rate of flow of time rate of flow of
contained within the
control volume at time t
= mass in across inlet i
at time t
- mass out across exit
e at time t
Mass rate balance

In general, there may be several locations on the boundary through which

mass enters or exits.
Mass rate balance

At steady state
One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance

Velocity
or in terms of specific volume

Specific volume
Conservation of energy for a control volume

time rate of change of the net rate at which net rate at which net rate of energy transfer into
enrgy contained within the
control volume at time t
= energy is being - energy is being
transferred out by
+ the control volume
accompanying mass flow
transferred in by heat
transfer at time t work at time t
Work term in the control volume

Substituting this v above

Flow work

The term 𝒄𝒗 accounts for all other energy transfers by work

across the boundary of the control volume.
Typical example
One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance

The subscript “cv” has been

added to 𝑄̇
to emphasize that this is the
heat transfer
rate over the boundary
(control surface) of the
Specific enthalpy control volume.
For multiple-inlet, multiple-outlet system
For Steady State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate Balances

kWatts

kJoules
For one-inlet, one-outlet system
 A nozzle is a flow
Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations passage of varying cross-
sectional area in which
the velocity of a gas or
liquid increases in the
, direction of flow.

In a diffuser, the gas or

liquid decelerates in the
If V1 <<< V2, then direction of flow.
Shaft Work Machines
Turbine takes energy from a working fluid
and produces power while expelling the
Turbine
working fluid possessing a reduced energy.

A compressor is a shaft work machine

whose purpose is to use power to increase
the pressure of a gas or vapor flowing
through it

A pump is a shaft work machine whose Compressor

purpose is to increase the pressure of a
liquid flowing through it, through the use
of input power.
Pump
Turbines
A turbine is a device in which power is developed as a
result of a gas or liquid passing through a set of blades
attached to a shaft free to rotate.

,
Compressors and Pumps
Compressors and pumps are devices in which work is done on the
substance flowing through them in order to change the state of
the substance, typically to increase the pressure and/or elevation.
The term compressor is used when the substance is a gas
(vapor), and the term pump is used when the substance is a
liquid.

Eq. (X)

,
Analyzing a Pump System
Figure 1 provides steady state operating data for a pump drawing water from a reservoir and delivering it
at a pressure of 3 bar to a storage tank perched 15 m above the reservoir. The power input to the pump
is 0.52 kW. The water temperature remains nearly constant at 15oC, there is no significant change in
kinetic energy from inlet to exit, and heat transfer between the pump and its surroundings is negligible.
Determine the mass flow rate of water, in kg/s. Let g = 9.81 m/s2.
Engineering Model: Schematic and Given Data:

(1) The control volume shown on the sketch is at steady

state.

(2) For the control volume, 𝑄̇cv = 0, and Δke = 0.

But of Δpe?
𝑊̇ = 0.52 kW
(3) The water temperature remains nearly constant from
inlet to exit.
𝑄̇ =0
(4) For the water,
ℎ 𝑇, 𝑝 ≈ ℎ 𝑇 + 𝑣 (𝑇) 𝑝 − 𝑝 (𝑇)

applies.

(5) g = 9.81 m/s2.

 ANALYSIS: The mass rate balance for the one-inlet, one-exit control volume at steady state is
̇1= 2̇ ≡ ̇. The energy rate balance (Eq. X) reduces as follows:

(ℎ −ℎ ) ≈ {ℎ 𝑇 + 𝑣 (𝑇 ) 𝑝 − 𝑝 (𝑇 ) }- {ℎ 𝑇 + 𝑣 (𝑇 ) 𝑝 − 𝑝 (𝑇 ) }-

With 𝑇 = 𝑇 , ℎ 𝑇 = ℎ 𝑇

ℎ −ℎ = 𝑣 (T) 𝑝 − 𝑝
 (T)

Inserting values and converting units, with vf(15oC) = 1.0009 x 10-3 m3/kg from Table A-2:
 Heat exchangers have innumerable domestic and industrial applications,
Heat Exchangers including use in home heating and cooling systems, automotive systems, electrical
power generation, and chemical processing.

Direct contact

Tube-within-a-tube counter flow

Tube-within-a-tube parallel flow

Cross-flow
Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations

Assume that ,
Evaluating Performance of a Power Plant Condenser

Steam enters the condenser of a vapor power plant at 0.1 bar with a quality of 0.95 and
condensate exits at 0.1 bar and 45oC. Cooling water enters the condenser in a separate
stream as a liquid at 20oC and exits as a liquid at 35oC with no change in pressure. Heat
transfer from the outside of the condenser and changes in the kinetic and potential
energies of the flowing streams can be ignored. For steady-state operation, determine

(a) the ratio of the mass flow rate of the cooling water to the mass flow rate of the
condensing steam.
(b) the rate of energy transfer from the condensing steam to the cooling water, in kJ per
kg of steam passing through the condenser.
SOLUTION Known: Steam is condensed at steady state by interacting with a separate
liquid water stream.
Find: Determine the ratio of the mass flow rate of the cooling water to the
mass flow rate of the steam and the rate of energy transfer from the steam to
the cooling water.
Engineering Model:
1. Each of the two control volumes shown
on the accompanying sketch is at steady state.
2. There is no significant heat transfer
between the overall condenser and its
surroundings. .
3. Changes in the kinetic and potential
energies of the flowing streams from inlet to
exit can be ignored.
4. At states 2, 3, and 4, h hf(T).
(a) Note: ,

Heat gained by the cold fluid = Heat lost by the hot fluid
(b)

Note:

kJ/kg
Throttling Devices Assume that ,
A significant reduction in pressure
can be achieved simply by
introducing a restriction into a line
through which a gas or liquid flows.
This is commonly done by means of
a partially opened valve or a porous
plug. These throttling devices are
illustrated in the figures displayed.
Example is in vapor-compression
refrigeration systems, where a valve
is used to reduce the pressure of the
refrigerant from the pressure at the
exit of the condenser to the lower
pressure existing in the evaporator.
System Integration

Control volume enclosing a tree Simple vapor power plant

Engineering Thermodynamics
(CHE 201)

E. Betiku, PhD
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,
Nigeria
 Chapter 7

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of Chapter 7, you will be able to

1. Describe the nature of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, recognize its uses
and implications, and state the classical statements of the second law;

2. Explain the difference between a reversible and an irreversible process;

3. Calculate the maximum possible efficiency (Carnot efficiency) of a heat engine,
and the maximum possible coefficient of performance of a refrigerator and a
heat pump; and
4. Recognize the concept of a perpetual motion machine.

3
Limitations of First Law

1. First Law does not specify the direction of

occurrence of a process, but in reality,
processes can occur only in a certain direction.

2. It does not specify whether the process is

feasible or not.
The Nature of The Second Law of Thermodynamics

5
The Nature of The Second Law of Thermodynamics

• If the first law describes processes that may or may not occur,
how can we determine if a proposed process can actually occur
in nature?

• The second law describes conditions that dictate how processes

actually proceed in nature.

• There is no simple statement of the second law such as there is

for the first law and there is no single equation that covers all
possible situations in nature.

6
Processes
Second law and deductions from it have many important uses:

1. predicting the direction of processes.

2. establishing conditions for equilibrium.
3. determining the best theoretical performance of cycles, engines, and other devices.
4. evaluating quantitatively the factors that preclude the attainment of the best
theoretical performance level.
5. defining a temperature scale independent of the properties of any thermometric
substance.
6. developing means for evaluating properties such as u and h in terms of properties
that are more readily obtained experimentally.
Concept of Quality of Energy

First Law assumes 100 % Conversion.

Work
The Second Law states that the
conversion between Energy and Work is
not 100%
System energy
Example of a Process that satisfies 1st law but not 2nd law

Heat

Tambient< Tcoffee

Satisfies both Satisfies only

1st & 2nd laws 1st law but not
2nd law
Thermal Reservoir (TR)
 This is a large body of infinite heat capacity which is capable
of supplying and absorbing heat without change in its
temperature.

 This is a heat source or heat sink which remains at constant

temperature regardless of energy interaction.

TR which supplies heat energy is called SOURCE

TR which absorbs heat energy is called SINK
EXAMPLE OF TR
1. Oceans, Rivers, Lakes
2. Atmosphere
3. Materials subject to phase changes
4. Industrial Furnaces with Temperature Control
Power cycle
Heat Engine is a device which produces work as output by
receiving heat as input

𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒏
Clausius Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

It is impossible for any system to operate in such a way

that the sole result would be an energy transfer by heat
from a cooler to a hotter body.
Clausius Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

It is impossible for a continuously operating device to transfer heat from a cold

thermal reservoir to a warm thermal reservoir without the input of work.
Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
It is impossible for any system to operate in a thermodynamic cycle
and deliver a net amount of energy by work to its surroundings while
receiving energy by heat transfer from a single thermal reservoir.
Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
A practical illustration of the Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Equivalence of the Clausius and Kelvin–Planck Statements

A violation of the Clausius statement

implies a violation of the Kelvin–
Planck statement.
Entropy statement of the second law

It is impossible for any

system to operate in a way
that entropy is destroyed.
Reversible Processes

A process is reversible if both the system and

surroundings can be returned to their initial states.

The ideal performance of a device is obtained if

the device is operating in a reversible manner.
Irreversible Processes

A process is called irreversible if the system and

all parts of its surroundings cannot be exactly
restored to their respective initial states after the
process has occurred.

No process is truly reversible, although some may

be very close to being reversible and can be
adequately modeled as such.
Irreversible and Reversible Processes

An internally reversible process is one for

which the system experiences a reversible
process, but there are irreversibilities in the
surroundings.

An externally reversible process is one for which

the surroundings experience a reversible process,
whereas irreversibilities occur inside the system.
An illustration of irreversibility
Irreversible processes normally include one or more of the following irreversibilities:

• Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference.

• Unrestrained expansion of a gas or liquid to a lower
pressure
• Spontaneous chemical reaction
• Spontaneous mixing of matter at different
compositions or states
• Friction-sliding friction as well as friction in the flow of
fluids
• Electric current flow through a resistance
• Magnetization or polarization with hysteresis
• Inelastic deformation
Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs

𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑯 𝑪 𝑪
𝑯 𝑯 𝑯

It implies that
Corollaries of the Second Law for Power Cycles

1. The thermal efficiency of an irreversible power cycle is

always less than the thermal efficiency of a reversible power
cycle when each operates between the same two thermal
reservoirs ( 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝒓𝒆𝒗 ).

2. All reversible power cycles operating between the same two

thermal reservoirs have the same thermal efficiency.
Heat Pump Cycle Interacting with Two Reservoirs

Heat Pump is a device which supplies heat to the room to

maintain a temperature more than the surrounding temperature.

𝑯 𝑯
𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑯 𝑪
Refrigeration Cycle Interacting with Two Reservoirs

Refrigerator is a device which is used to produce and maintain a temperature

less than the surrounding temperature by extracting heat from the refrigerated
space.

𝑯 𝑪
𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑯 𝑪
Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and Heat Pump

1. The coefficient of performance of an irreversible refrigeration

cycle is always less than the coefficient of performance of a
reversible refrigeration cycle when each operates between the
same two thermal reservoirs ( 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝒓𝒆𝒗 ).

2. All reversible refrigeration cycles operating between the same

two thermal reservoirs have the same coefficient of
performance.
Carnot Cycle

• This is a theoretical power cycle.

• This is a reversible cycle, two adiabatic processes alternated
with two isothermal processes.
• Developed by Nicholas Sadi Carnot, a French military engineer.
• This is the best possible device one can design.
Carnot Power Cycle executed by a gas in a piston–cylinder assembly
Carnot Power Cycle

Process 1–2: The gas is compressed adiabatically to state 2, where

the temperature is TH.
Process 2–3: The assembly is placed in contact with the reservoir
at TH. The gas expands isothermally while receiving energy QH from
the hot reservoir by heat transfer.
Process 3–4: The assembly is again placed on the insulating stand
and the gas is allowed to continue to expand adiabatically until the
temperature drops to TC.
Process 4–1: The assembly is placed in contact with the reservoir
at TC. The gas is compressed isothermally to its initial state while it
discharges energy QC to the cold reservoir by heat transfer.
Carnot vapor power cycle
Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles

Process 1–2: The gas expands isothermally at TC while receiving

energy QC from the cold reservoir by heat transfer.

Process 2–3: The gas is compressed adiabatically until its

temperature is TH.

Process 3–4: The gas is compressed isothermally at TH while it

discharges energy

QH to the hot reservoir by heat transfer.

Process 4–1: The gas expands adiabatically until its temperature
decreases to TC.
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑪

𝑯 𝑯

𝑪
𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝑪 𝑯
𝑯

𝑪 𝑪

𝑯 𝑯

𝑪
𝑯
Reversible Heat Engine Cycles 𝑪 𝑪

𝑯 𝑯

𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑪

𝑯 𝑯

𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑪

𝑯 𝑯
if a reversible cycle is operated between a reservoir
at 273.16 K and another reservoir at temperature T,

𝒕𝒑 𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆
Efficiency of Reversible and Irreversible Heat Engine Cycles (Power Cycle)

𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑪 Efficiency of an Irreversible

Heat Engine
𝑯 𝑯

𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑪 Efficiency of a Reversible

Heat Engine (Carnot Efficiency)
𝑯 𝑯

𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝒓𝒆𝒗
Carnot Efficiencies

Example:
A young engineer proposes a new heat pump design for your company. The heat
pump operates between temperatures of 8.0°C and 22.0°C and is claimed to be
able to deliver 15.0 kW of heat to the warm space while using only 0.60 kW of
power. Should you decide to have your company develop this design, or does it
violate the second law?
Carnot Efficiencies

Solution:
Find the Carnot coefficient of performance, then compare that to the claimed
coefficient of performance.
Given:
TH = 22.0°C = 295 K; TC = 8.0°C = 281 K;

The proposed heat pump violates

the second law, and your company
should not pursue development.
Engineering Thermodynamics
(CHE 201)

E. Betiku, PhD
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,
Nigeria
Chapter 8

Evaluating Entropy
Learning Objectives

Upon completion of Chapter 8, you will be able to

Explain the concept of entropy and the principle of entropy generation;
Calculate changes in entropy during a process for various types of
substances;
Apply the entropy balance to open and closed system applications; and

Compute the isentropic efficiency for devices such as turbines and

compressors.

3
Entropy – A System Property

𝜹𝑸
is called entropy (S)
𝑻

• It is an extensive property
• The SI unit for entropy is J/K.
Entropy and Clausius Inequality
Entropy and Clausius Inequality

𝑖𝑟𝑟
Entropy and Clausius Inequality

For a heat engine, consider a situation where the temperatures of the reservoir
differ by a finite amount, such that irreversibilities are now present.

The irreversibility reduces the amount of work that is produced:

Entropy and Clausius Inequality

where the value is equal to 0 for reversible cycles, and

less than 0 for irreversible cycles.
Defining Entropy Change
Strength of inequality

Cycles 1-A-2+2-C-1

the term 𝜎cycle has been set to zero since

the cycles are composed
Cycles 1-B-2+2-C-1 of internally reversible processes
Two internally reversible
cycles
0
The change in entropy is given by
To calculate the change in entropy by
using this equation
• The process must be internally reversible
• The relationship between heat transfer and
absolute temperature must be known
On a differential basis

For an Irreversible Process

Since It is implies that

Entropy Generation

Sgen > 0 Process is possible and irreversible

Sgen = 0 Process is possible and reversible

Sgen < 0 Process is impossible

Just because the analysis of the entropy generation

of a proposed process is positive, the process is not
guaranteed to be possible.
Introducing the T dS Equations

Recall that and

First TdS
 Second TdS

On mass basis

and
Entropy Change of an Incompressible Substance

Incompressible substance , c is constant

Evaluating Changes in the Entropy of a System
Example:
A 2.0 kg block of iron at 20°C is dropped into a large bucket of boiling water at 100°C.
The iron is heated until its temperature is 100°C. Determine the increase in entropy of
the iron during this process. Take specific heat capacity of iron to be 0.45 kJ/kg.K

Given: m = 2.0 kg, T1 = 20°C = 293 K, T2 = 100°C = 373 K

Solution:

𝑇 kJ 373 K
𝑆 − 𝑆 = 𝑚 𝑐 ln = 2.0 kg 0.45 ln
𝑇 kg·K 293 K

𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟕 𝐤𝐉/𝐊
Entropy Balance

• Entropy Change = Entropy Transported + Entropy Generated

• Entropy is transported in two ways:

1. Via heat transfer, and
2. Via mass flow.

Entropy transport via mass flow is an expected feature of an open

system that has mass flowing in or out of the system.
Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State

Rate of Rates of Rate of

entropy entropy entropy
change transfer production

𝒅𝑺𝒄𝒗
At steady state
𝒅𝒕
Entropy Balance for Closed Systems
change in the amount of net amount of amount of entropy
entropy contained within
the system during some
= entropy transferred in
across the system
- produced within the
system during the
time interval boundary during the time interval
time interval

Entropy change Entropy transfer Entropy production

When there are no internal irreversibilities, vanishes

Use of Entropy Generation

• If an entropy generation calculation indicates that a process

has a negative entropy generation, it is probable that the
process is impossible.

• The entropy generation calculation can allow us to

compare different processes that we know are possible to
see which is better thermodynamically.

• Although entropy generation normally indicates that a

process is less efficient, there are times when increasing the
efficiency is not economically sensible or where other factors
negate the importance of the energy efficiency of a process.
Isentropic Efficiencies

• The entropy is constant for a reversible and adiabatic process, and a

constant entropy process is also called an isentropic process.

• Because a reversible and adiabatic process implies that the

process is isentropic, we call the type of comparison
reflecting this an isentropic efficiency.

Note:
An isentropic process does not need to be reversible and adiabatic.
 2 1q1

Isentropic Efficiencies

Assuming Constant Specific Heats

and

and

𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟏 𝒔𝟏 = 𝒔𝟐 , 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝒌
𝟐 𝟐 and
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏

𝟐 𝟏
𝒔𝟏 = 𝒔𝟐 , 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝛾
𝟏 𝟐
Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
For Ideal Gas
 2 1q1

Isentropic Processes The term isentropic means constant entropy (S).

Assuming Constant Specific Heats

and

and

𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟏 𝒔𝟏 = 𝒔𝟐 , 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝒌
𝟐 𝟐 and
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏

𝟐 𝟏
𝒔𝟏 = 𝒔𝟐 , 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝛾
𝟏 𝟐
Developing the Closed System Entropy Balance
Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes

For devices such as turbines,

compressors, and pumps

In most cases,
Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes

It can be difficult to determine a change in temperature of the liquid exiting the

non-ideal pump, so we normally concern ourselves with the change in enthalpy
instead.

This equation can be used to approximate the change in enthalpy for an

incompressible liquid undergoing an isentropic process.
Heat Transfer in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes

Control volume is both

0
isothermal and internally
reversible
Concept of Isolated System
It is a system that does not
exchange heat, work and
Surrounding + System Universe mass with the surrounding.

If the system and the surrounding

undergo a reversible process

If either the system or the surrounding

undergoes an irreversible process (or both)
Engineering Thermodynamics
(CHE 201)

E. Betiku, PhD
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,
Nigeria
 Chapter 9

Vapour and Gas Power Systems

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of Chapter 9, you will be able to

Explain the role of power cycles in the modern world;
Apply cycle analysis techniques to the Rankine vapor power cycle and
variations of the Rankine cycle, including using additional components;
Analyze the Brayton power cycle, along with possible modifications to the
Brayton cycle;

Examine the Otto, Diesel, and Dual cycles, and compare the relationship
of these cycles to practical internal combustion engines; and
Model how variations in properties within the cycles affect the
performance of the cycles.
3
Introduction

The purpose of a power cycle is to generate work or power after the

working fluid receives energy in the form of heat.
The power is produced by the working fluid flowing through a prime
mover, such as a turbine or a piston–cylinder device.
Power cycles use working fluids that either remain as a gas throughout the
entire process or undergo a phase change between a liquid and a vapor.

4
Large-Scale Electric Power Generation through 2050 from Renewable and
Nonrenewable Sources
Fossil-fueled vapor power plant
Pressurized-water reactor nuclear vapor power plant
Concentrating solar thermal vapor power plant
Geothermal vapor power plant
Principal work and heat transfers of subsystem
The Ideal Carnot Power Cycle (one of the first vapour cycles)

The maximum possible efficiency of the power cycle can be found from modeling
it as a Carnot heat engine.

The Carnot power cycle consists of four reversible processes:

• Process 1-2: Isothermal heat addition

• Process 2-3: Isentropic expansion
• Process 3-4: Isothermal heat rejection
• Process 4-1: Isentropic compression

(a) Vapour Carnot power cycle (b) gas Carnot power cycle
The Ideal Carnot Power Cycle

Because the Carnot power cycle represents the reversible (ideal) form of any
power cycle, the maximum possible efficiency of any power cycle operating
between a maximum temperature and a minimum temperature is:

𝑪
𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑯
The Ideal Carnot Power Cycle

For a power cycle, the high-temperature reservoir must have a

temperature equal to or greater than the maximum temperature in
the cycle, and the low-temperature reservoir temperature must
have a temperature equal to or less than the minimum temperature
in the cycle.
The Ideal Carnot Power Cycle

TH

TL

(a) Vapour Carnot power cycle (b) gas Carnot power cycle
Disadvantages of Carnot cycle
1. Difficult to compress a two-phase mixture isentropically (Process 4-1).
2. The process 1-2 has to be controlled very accurately to finish with quality 1(state 2).
3. The expansion in the turbine produces a mixture with high moisture (3) that causes
corrosion in the turbine.
4. The efficiency is greatly affected by TH which cannot be modified without
increasing the pressure.
The Rankine Cycle

• The primary vapor power cycle in thermodynamics is the Rankine

cycle.

• Most coal-fired power plants, some natural gas-fired power plants, and
most nuclear power plants (as well as some facilities using other fuels)
use a form of the Rankine cycle to generate the mechanical power
transmitted to an electrical generator to produce electricity.

• Water (steam) is the most common working fluid used in the Rankine
cycle.
The Rankine Cycle
T
• The design of the steam generator is
such that the water will exit the device as
a saturated vapor in the basic Rankine
3 cycle.

2 • The water exiting the condenser is

assumed to be a saturated liquid (x1 = 0).
1 4

s
The T-s diagram for the ideal, basic Rankine cycle

The four processes in the ideal, basic Rankine • Process 1-2: Isentropic compression in a pump.
cycle are as follows: • Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler.
• Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion in a turbine.
• Process 4-1: Constant pressure energy removal by heat
transfer from condenser.
The Rankine Cycle
T 1

3 2

s
The four processes in the ideal, basic Rankine cycle are as follows: • The design of the steam generator is
such that the water will exit the device as
• Process 1-2: Isentropic expansion in a turbine.
a saturated vapor in the basic Rankine
• Process 2-3: Constant pressure energy removal by heat cycle.
transfer from condenser.
• Process 3-4: Isentropic compression in a pump. • The water exiting the condenser is
• Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler. assumed to be a saturated liquid (x1 = 0).
The Rankine Cycle

The following assumptions are standard:

1. s1 = s2 (By definition, the pump is isentropic in the ideal cycle.)

2. P2 = P3 (The heat addition is considered to be at constant pressure.)

3. s3 = s4 (By definition, the turbine is isentropic in the ideal cycle.)

4. P4 = P1 (The heat removal is considered to be at constant pressure.)

5. The changes in kinetic energy and potential energy of the working fluid
through each device are negligible.
The Rankine Cycle

6. The turbine and pump are both adiabatic.

7. There is no power used or produced in the steam generator or

condenser.

8. Liquid flowing through the pump is incompressible.

9. The mass flow rate is constant through each device.

10. Each device operates as a steady-state, steady-flow device.

The Rankine Cycle

A schematic diagram of an entire Rankine

cycle power plant facility, including the
cycle itself, a combustion process, and a
cooling tower for rejecting heat to the
environment
Principal work and heat transfers for Rankine devices Pump
0 0
0
T

3
2
̇
1 4 where ̇ is the rate of power input per unit
of mass passing through the pump.
s
Principal work and heat transfers for Rankine devices Pump

Because the specific volume of the liquid normally varies only slightly as the liquid
flows from the inlet to the exit of the pump, a plausible approximation to the value of
the integral can be had by taking the specific volume at the pump inlet, v3, as constant
for the process. Then

where the subscript s signals the isentropic—internally reversible

and adiabatic-process of the liquid flowing through the pump.
Principal work and heat transfers for Rankine devices
Boiler
0 0
0

3
2

4 ̇
1 where ̇ is the rate of heat transfer from the energy
source into the working fluid per unit mass passing
s through the boiler.
Principal work and heat transfers for Rankine devices
Turbines
0 0
0
T

3
2

4 ̇
1 where ̇ is the rate at which work is developed per
unit of mass of vapour passing through the turbine.
s
Principal work and heat transfers for Rankine devices
Condenser
0 0
0

3
2

4 ̇
1 where ̇ is the rate at which energy is transferred by
heat from the working fluid to the cooling water per
s unit mass of working fluid passing through the
condenser.
Performance Parameters

The thermal efficiency of the power cycle

The net work output equals the net heat

input. Thus, The net work output equals
the net heat input. ̇ ̇ ̇
̇ ̇ ̇
̇ ̇
̇ ̇

The basic, ideal Rankine cycle is less efficient than the Carnot cycle, but not by a great amount.
Performance Parameters

Another parameter used to describe power plant performance is the back

work ratio, or bwr, defined as the ratio of the pump work input to the work
developed by the turbine.
Non-Ideal, Basic Rankine Cycle

The assumption of an isentropic turbine and an

isentropic pump will lead to an overprediction of
the thermal efficiency of an actual Rankine cycle.

• It is desirable to increase the thermal efficiency of steam

power plants.

• The lower the thermal efficiency of a power plant, the more

fuel that needs to be consumed in order to get the same net
power output.

• The best possible thermal efficiency that could be achieved

with a realistic basic Rankine cycle in practice would be less
than 40%, and likely even lower.
Ideal Rankine Cycle

The simplest method to increase the maximum possible

thermal efficiency is to increase the highest temperature
in the system—the temperature of the steam entering
the turbine.

Theoretically, the steam could be heated to the

maximum temperature of the combustion products
entering the steam generator, but the temperature of the
superheated steam is usually kept below approximately
600°C due to considerations of material properties and
material durability.
Effect of boiler pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle

Two ideal cycles having the same condenser pressure

but different boiler pressures. By inspection, the
average temperature of heat addition is seen to be
greater for the higher-pressure cycle 1’–2’–3’–4’–1’ than
for cycle 1–2–3–4–1.

It follows that increasing the boiler pressure of the

ideal Rankine cycle tends to increase the thermal
efficiency.

That is 𝒑𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓
Effect of condenser pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle

Two cycles with the same boiler pressure but two

different condenser pressures. One condenser
operates at atmospheric pressure and the other at
less than atmospheric pressure.

The temperature of heat rejection for cycle 1–2–3–

4–1 condensing at atmospheric pressure is 100oC
(212oF). The temperature of heat rejection for the
lower pressure cycle 1”–2”–3”–4”–1” is
correspondingly lower, so this cycle has the greater
thermal efficiency. It follows that decreasing the
That is 𝒑𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓 condenser pressure tends to increase the thermal
efficiency.
Comparison of the ideal Rankine cycle with the Carnot cycle

Ideal Rankine cycle 1–2–3–4–4’–1 and Carnot cycle

1–2–3’–4’–1

With the same TH and TC,

Yet the ideal Rankine cycle is better than the

Carnot cycle
1. Difficult to pump a two-phase liquid-vapour
mixture.
2. A smaller portion of the energy released on
combustion would be used. Q required for
Process 4-4’ is less than Process 3’-4’.
Principal Irreversibilities and Losses

Irreversibilities and losses are

associated with each of the four
subsystems designated A, B, C, and D.
Internal effects on turbine and pump
The principal internal irreversibility experienced by
the working fluid is associated with expansion
through the turbine

Alternatively,
Analyzing a Rankine Cycle with Irreversibilities
Reconsider the vapor power cycle of Example 8.1, but include in the analysis that the
turbine and the pump each have an isentropic efficiency of 85%. Determine for the
modified cycle (a) the thermal efficiency, (b) the mass flow rate of steam, in kg/h, for a net
power output of 100 MW, (c) the rate of heat transfer into the working fluid as it
passes through the boiler, in MW, (d) the rate of heat transfer from the condensing
steam as it passes through the condenser, in MW, (e) the mass flow rate of the condenser
cooling water, in kg/h, if cooling water enters the condenser at 15oC and exits as 35oC.
Ideal Rankine Cycle

T-s diagrams of an ideal Rankine cycle with superheat.

The steam leaving the turbine (state 4) can be either in
the form of (a) a saturated mixture or (b) a superheated
vapour
Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle

T-s diagrams of a non-ideal Rankine cycle with superheat.

(a) Both the ideal isentropic turbine outlet state (state 4s) and the actual
outlet state (state 4) are saturated mixtures (b) State 4s is saturated,
whereas state 4 superheated vapour. (c) Both state 4s and state 4 are
superheated vapours.
Rankine Cycle Reheat

• One device that can plague Rankine cycle power plants is an inefficient
turbine.

• One factor that can cause the efficiency of a turbine to decrease is the
presence of liquid in a saturated mixture steam flow.

• To help avoid the undesirably low exit quality from the turbine, a reheat
stage can be added.

• The steam is extracted partway through the turbine system and returned
to another section of the steam generator—the reheat section.
Rankine Cycle

If superheated steam entering a

turbine at a particular temperature
undergoes isentropic expansion in a
turbine to a saturated mixture. A
higher inlet pressure will result in a
lower exit quality.
Rankine Cycle
Rankine Cycle

T-s diagrams of a Rankine cycle with reheat (and superheat).

(a) Isentropic turbine and pump, (b) non-isentropic turbine and pump.
Rankine Cycle

A secondary benefit to using reheat is that higher temperature fluids

have higher specific heats, and so we can obtain a greater change in
enthalpy, resulting in more power out of a turbine, if we use higher
temperature steam.
Gas Power Systems

 They employ gas as the working fluid

 The working fluid remains a gas in the cycle (there is no phase changes)
 In actual gas power cycles, the fluid consists mainly of air plus the products
of combustion such as carbon dioxide and water vapor (all in vapor phase!!!)

 cars
 Trucks
 gas-turbine engines
Gas Power Systems
The assumptions made for air standard cycle analysis are as follows:

1. The cycle is a closed-loop system with the working fluid being air that flows
through the cycle.

2. The air behaves as an ideal gas.

3. All processes in the cycle are internally reversible.

4. The combustion process is replaced with a heat addition process, which

receives heat from an external source.

5. The exhaust and intake processes are replaced with a single heat-rejection
process, which returns the air to its initial state.
Internal Combustion Engines

There are two principal types of reciprocating

internal combustion engines:

 Spark ignition engine

 compression-ignition engine
Internal Combustion Engines

• The bore of the cylinder is its diameter.

• The stroke is the distance the piston moves in one
direction.
• The piston is said to be at top dead center when it
has moved to a position where the cylinder volume is
a minimum.
• This minimum volume is known as the clearance
volume.
• When the piston has moved to the position of
maximum cylinder volume, the piston is at bottom
dead center.
• The volume swept out by the piston as it moves from
the top dead center to the bottom dead center ompression ratio (r)
position is called the displacement volume.
Four-stroke, Spark-Ignition Engine

A series of diagrams illustrating the processes in a four-stroke spark-ignition engine.

(a) The intake stroke, (b) the compression stroke, (c) combustion, (d) the power stroke,
and (e) the exhaust stroke
Four-stroke Internal Combustion Engines

A parameter used to describe the performance

of reciprocating piston engines is the mean
effective pressure, or mep.
Air-Standard Otto Cycle

The Basic Four-Stroke, Spark-Ignition engine

The four strokes are

(1) intake stroke,

(2) compression stroke,
(3) expansion (or power) stroke, and
(4) exhaust stroke.

The piston is connected to the crankshaft through a connecting rod. This

connection mechanism converts the linear motion of the piston to the rotary
motion of the crankshaft and the crankshaft subsequently transmits the power
out of the engine to the external load.
Otto Cycle
Otto Engine Analysis

Relationships to analyze each process

Otto Engine Analysis

heat ratio, 𝑘 = ,
where r denotes the compression ratio. Note that since V3 =
V2 and V4 = V1, r = V1/ V2 = V4/V3
For an Otto cycle with a working
fluid of an ideal gas with
constant specific heats, the
thermal efficiency is
Air-Standard Diesel Cycle

Although the compression-ignition engine cycle is fairly similar to the

spark-ignition engine cycle, there are some important differences:

• First, only air is inducted into the cylinder.

• Second, the fuel is initially ignited by being heated by the hot
air whose temperature is above the self-ignition temperature of
the fuel.
• Third, the amount of power is controlled not by the length of
time that the fuel is injected into the cylinder.
Air-Standard Diesel Cycle

The cycle consists of four internally reversible processes

in series.

Process 1-2: isentropic compression.

Process 2–3: is a constant-pressure heat transfer to
the air from an external source while the piston is at top
dead center.
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion from state 3 to state
4 is the remainder of the power stroke.
Process 4–1: completes the cycle by a constant-volume
process in which heat is rejected from the air while the
piston is at bottom dead center.
Diesel Engine Analysis
Otto Engine Analysis
Air-Standard Dual Cycle

Dual cycle, which combines elements of the

Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle:

Process 1-2: isentropic compression.

Process 2–3: is a constant-volume heat addition.
Process 3-4: is a constant-pressure heat addition. This
process also makes up the first part of the power stroke.
Process 4–5: isentropic expansion.
Process 5-1: constant-volume heat rejection process
Air-Standard Dual Cycle

and

𝑶𝒕𝒕𝒐 𝑫𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍

Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

The Brayton cycle can be seen as a gas power cycle equivalent of

the basic Rankine cycle because it consists of the following four
processes (in an ideal cycle):

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression

Process 2-3: Constant-pressure heat addition
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion
Process 4-1: Constant-pressure heat removal
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

Compressor power
Turbine power
Combustor heat input rate
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle