Lecture 4

APPLIED
THERMODYNAMICS
(BEEE
211)

Ing. A. Okuley
 COURSE CONTENT
1. Introduction & Basic Concepts
2. Heat, Work and Energy
3. Vapour Power Cycles
4. Gas Power Cycles
5. Refrigeration & Heat Pump Cycles
6. Combustion

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 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the successful

student will be able to understand and
explain:
• The Carnot vapor cycle
• Rankine cycle: The ideal cycle for
vapor power cycles
• How can we increase the efficiency of
the Rankine cycle?
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 We use 𝑉ሶ to avoid confusion
with heat transfer.

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ENERGY ANALYSIS OF STEADY FLOW
SYSTEMS

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For single-stream devices, the steady-flow energy balance equation becomes

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 Outcomes
Many engineering devices operate essentially under the same conditions
for long periods of time. The components of a steam power plant (turbines,
compressors, heat exchangers, and pumps), for example, operate nonstop for
months before the system is shut down for maintenance. Therefore, these devices can
be conveniently analyzed as steady-flow devices.

At very high velocities,

even small changes in
A modern land-based gas turbine used for electric power velocities can cause
production. This is a General Electric LM5000 turbine. It significant changes in
has a length of 6.2 m, it weighs 12.5 tons, and produces the kinetic energy of the
fluid. 10
55.2 MW at 3600 rpm with steam injection.
Nozzles and Diffusers
Nozzles and diffusers are commonly
utilized in jet engines, rockets,
spacecraft, and even garden hoses.
A nozzle is a device that increases
the velocity of a fluid at the expense
of pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases
the pressure of a fluid by slowing it
down.
The cross-sectional area of a nozzle
decreases in the flow direction for
subsonic flows and increases for
supersonic flows. The reverse is true
for diffusers.
Nozzles and diffusers are Energy balance for a
shaped so that they cause large nozzle or diffuser:
changes in fluid velocities and
thus kinetic energies.

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Turbines and
Compressors Turbine drives the electric generator In
steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants.
As the fluid passes through the turbine,
work is done against the blades, which are
attached to the shaft. As a result, the shaft
rotates, and the turbine produces work.
Compressors, as well as pumps and
fans, are devices used to increase the
pressure of a fluid. Work is supplied to
these devices from an external source
through a rotating shaft.
A fan increases the pressure of a gas
slightly and is mainly used to mobilize a
gas.
Energy balance for the
compressor in this figure: A compressor is capable of compressing
the gas to very high pressures.
Pumps work very much like compressors
except that they handle liquids instead of
gases.

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 Throttling valves

Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that

cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid.
What is the difference between a turbine and a throttling
valve?
The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large
drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling devices are
commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.
Energy
balance

The temperature of an ideal gas

does not change during a During a throttling process, the enthalpy of a
throttling (h = constant) fluid remains constant. But internal and flow
process since h = h(T). energies may be converted to each other. 18
 60C
Mixing chambers

In engineering applications, the section

where the mixing process takes place is
commonly referred to as a mixing
chamber.
140 kPa

Energy balance for the

10C 43C adiabatic mixing chamber in
the figure is:

The T-elbow of an ordinary shower

serves as the mixing chamber for the 19
hot- and the cold-water streams.
Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are
devices where two moving
fluid streams exchange heat
without mixing. Heat
exchangers are widely used
in various industries, and The heat transfer associated with a heat
they come in various exchanger may be zero or nonzero
designs. depending on how the control volume is
selected.

A heat exchanger
can be as simple as Mass and energy
two concentric pipes. balances for the adiabatic
heat exchanger in the
figure is:

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Pipe and duct fow
The transport of liquids or gases in
pipes and ducts is of great importance
in many engineering applications. Flow
through a pipe or a duct usually satisfies
the steady-flow conditions.

Pipe or duct flow may involve more than

one form of work at the same time.

Energy balance
Heat losses from for the pipe flow
a hot fluid shown in the
flowing through figure is
an uninsulated
pipe or duct to
the cooler
environment
may be very
significant. 21
 Summary
• Conservation of mass
– Mass and volume flow rates
– Mass balance for a steady-flow process
– Mass balance for incompressible flow
• Flow work and the energy of a flowing fluid
– Energy transport by mass
• Energy analysis of steady-flow systems
• Some steady-flow engineering devices
– Nozzles and Diffusers
– Turbines and Compressors
– Throttling valves
– Mixing chambers and Heat exchangers
– Pipe and Duct flow
• Energy analysis of unsteady-flow processes
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 THE CARNOT CYCLE

Execution of the Carnot cycle in a closed system.

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH)
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P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle. P-V diagram of the reversed
Carnot cycle.

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed,
in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle. 24
 THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES

The Carnot principles.

Proof of the first Carnot principle.

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the

efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two
reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the25
same two reservoirs are the same.
 THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE
A temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of the substances that are
used to measure temperature is called a
thermodynamic temperature scale.
Such a temperature scale offers great
conveniences in thermodynamic
calculations.

The arrangement of heat

engines used to develop
the thermodynamic
temperature scale.

All reversible heat

engines operating
between the same two
reservoirs have the 26
same efficiency.
For reversible cycles,
the heat transfer ratio
QH /QL can be
replaced by the This temperature scale is
absolute temperature called the Kelvin scale,
ratio TH /TL. and the temperatures on
this scale are called
absolute temperatures.

A conceptual experimental setup

to determine thermodynamic
temperatures on the Kelvin
scale by measuring heat
transfers QH and QL.
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THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE
The Carnot
heat engine
is the most
efficient of
all heat
engines
operating
between the
same high-
and low-
temperature
reservoirs.
No heat engine can have a higher
efficiency than a reversible heat engine
Any heat operating between the same high- and
engine low-temperature reservoirs.
Carnot heat
engine

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The Quality of Energy

Can we use
C unit for
temperature
The higher the temperature
here?
of the thermal energy, the
higher its quality.

The fraction of heat How do you increase the

that can be converted thermal efficiency of a Carnot
to work as a function heat engine? How about for
of source actual heat engines?
temperature.
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THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND
HEAT PUMP
Any refrigerator or heat pump

Carnot refrigerator or heat pump

How do you increase the

No refrigerator can have COP of a Carnot
a higher COP refrigerator or heat pump?
than a reversible How about for actual ones?
refrigerator operating
between the same 30
temperature limits.
 RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be
eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it
completely in the condenser. The cycle that results is the Rankine
cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal
Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities.

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The simple ideal Rankine cycle.
 Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
Steady-flow energy equation

The efficiency of power plants in

the U.S. is often expressed in terms
of heat rate, which is the amount of
heat supplied, in Btu’s, to generate
1 kWh of electricity.
The thermal efficiency can be interpreted
as the ratio of the area enclosed by the
cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under
the heat-addition process. 32
 DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER
CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a
result of irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common
sources of irreversibilities.
Isentropic efficiencies

(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine
cycle. (b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the
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ideal Rankine cycle.
 HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF
THE RANKINE CYCLE?
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal
efficiency
of a power cycle is the same: Increase the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease
the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid
in the condenser.
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers
Tlow,avg) To take advantage of the increased
efficiencies at low pressures, the condensers
of steam power plants usually operate well
below the atmospheric pressure. There is a
lower limit to this pressure depending on the
temperature of the cooling medium
Side effect: Lowering the condenser
pressure increases the moisture content of
the steam at the final stages of the turbine.
The effect of lowering the
condenser pressure on the
ideal Rankine cycle. 34
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg)
Both the net work and heat input
increase as a result of superheating
the steam to a higher temperature.
The overall effect is an increase in
thermal efficiency since the average
temperature at which heat is added
increases.
Superheating to higher temperatures
decreases the moisture content of the
steam at the turbine exit, which is
desirable.
The temperature is limited by
The effect of metallurgical considerations. Presently
superheating the the highest steam temperature allowed
steam to higher at the turbine inlet is about 620°C.
temperatures on
the ideal Rankine 35
cycle.
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
For a fixed turbine inlet Today many modern steam power
temperature, the cycle shifts to plants operate at supercritical
the left and the moisture pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and
content of steam at the turbine have thermal efficiencies of about
exit increases. This side effect 40% for fossil-fuel plants and 34%
can be corrected by reheating for nuclear plants.
the steam.

The effect of increasing

A supercritical Rankine cycle. 36
the boiler pressure on the
ideal Rankine cycle.
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler
pressures without facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final
stages of the turbine?
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. It is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between
(reheat)

The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.

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The single reheat in a modern power
plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5% by increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam.
The average temperature during the
reheat process can be increased by
increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is
increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal
process at the maximum temperature.
The use of more than two reheat stages
is not practical. The theoretical
improvement in efficiency from the
second reheat is about half of that which The average temperature at
results from a single reheat. which heat is transferred during
reheating increases as the
The reheat temperatures are very close
number of reheat stages is
or equal to the turbine inlet temperature.
increased.
The optimum reheat pressure is about
one-fourth of the maximum cycle
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pressure.
THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
Heat is transferred to the working fluid
during process 2-2 at a relatively low
temperature. This lowers the average
heat-addition temperature and thus the
cycle efficiency.
In steam power plants, steam is extracted
from the turbine at various points. This
steam, which could have produced more
work by expanding further in the turbine, is
used to heat the feedwater instead. The
device where the feedwater is heated by
regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH).
The first part of the A feedwater heater is basically a heat
heat-addition exchanger where heat is transferred from
process in the boiler the steam to the feedwater either by
takes place at mixing the two fluid streams (open
relatively low feedwater heaters) or without mixing them
temperatures. (closed feedwater heaters).
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Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact)
feedwater heater is basically a
mixing chamber, where the steam
extracted from the turbine mixes
with the feedwater exiting the
pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at
the heater pressure.

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The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.
 Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the
extracted steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two
streams now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix.

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The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.
The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal
tubing network, and thus they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed
feedwater heaters is less effective since the two streams are not allowed to
be in direct contact. However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a
separate pump for each heater since the extracted steam and the feedwater
can be at different pressures.
Open feedwater
A steam power plant with one open heaters are simple
and three closed feedwater heaters. and inexpensive
and have good
heat transfer
characteristics. For
each heater,
however, a pump is
required to handle
the feedwater.

Most steam power

plants use a
combination of
open and closed
feedwater heaters.

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SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF VAPOR
POWER CYCLES
Exergy destruction for a steady-flow system

Steady-flow, one-
inlet, one-exit

Exergy destruction of a cycle

For a cycle with heat transfer

only with a source and a sink

Stream exergy

A second-law analysis of vaporpower cycles reveals where the

largest irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.
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 COGENERATION
Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called
process heat. Process heat in these industries is usually supplied by
steam at 5 to 7 atm and 150 to 200°C. Energy is usually transferred to
the steam by burning coal, oil, natural gas, or another fuel in a
furnace.
Industries that use large amounts
of process heat also consume a
large amount of electric power.
It makes sense to use the already-
existing work potential to produce
power instead of letting it go to
waste.
The result is a plant that produces
electricity while meeting the
process-heat requirements of
certain industrial processes
(cogeneration plant)
A simple process-heating plant.

Cogeneration: The production of more than one useful form of energy

(such as process heat and electric power) from the same energy source.
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Utilization
factor

• The utilization factor of the

ideal steam-turbine
cogeneration plant is
100%.
• Actual cogeneration plants
have utilization factors as
high as 80%.
• Some recent cogeneration
plants have even higher
utilization factors.
An ideal cogeneration plant. 45
 At times of high demand for process heat, all
the steam is routed to the process-heating units
and none to the condenser (m7= 0). The waste
heat is zero in this mode.
If this is not sufficient, some steam leaving the
boiler is throttled by an expansion or pressure-
reducing valve to the extraction pressure P6
and is directed to the process-heating unit.
Maximum process heating is realized when all
the steam leaving the boiler passes through the
PRV (m5= m4). No power is produced in this
mode.
When there is no demand for process heat, all
the steam passes through the turbine and the
condenser (m5=m6=0), and the cogeneration
plant operates as an ordinary steam power
plant.
A cogeneration plant with
adjustable loads.

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COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES

• The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather
innovative modifications to conventional power plants.
• A popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor power
cycle, which is called the combined gas–vapor cycle, or just the
combined cycle.
• The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle
topping a steam-turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal
efficiency than either of the cycles executed individually.
• It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very desirable
characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use
the high-temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the
bottoming cycle such as a steam power cycle. The result is a combined
gas–steam cycle.
• Recent developments in gas-turbine technology have made the combined
gas–steam cycle economically very attractive.
• The combined cycle increases the efficiency without increasing the initial
cost greatly. Consequently, many new power plants operate on combined
cycles, and many more existing steam- or gas-turbine plants are being
converted to combined-cycle power plants.
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• Thermal efficiencies over 50% are reported.
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Combined gas–steam power plant.