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TOPIC 3: SOIL CHEMISTRY Pre-Necta and Mock

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Soil Formation

Soil F mation STUDY NOTES FOR
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Describe soil formation ALL SUBJECTS
NURSERY Soil is formed

PRIMARY by the process
SECONDARY of weathering.
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types of weathering (physical, chemical or Education Levels -
biological) result to disintegration of rocks into (Necta, Mock, Pre-
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smaller particles. Air and water enter the space
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between these particles and chemical changes
take place, which lead to the production of Download Notes,
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soon appear. When plants and animals die,
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other decomposers play a vital role in the Bure au Nunua Notes/Vitabu
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decomposition of plant and animal substrata.
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The end product of these mechanical, chemical
and biological processes is soil.
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Therefore, soil can be defined as
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material on the immediate surface of the
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plant growth.
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All soils contain mineral matter, organic matter, 6,295 followers
water, air and living organisms, especially

bacteria. If any one of these is substantially
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vegetation and the rock of the region in which it
forms. The weathering processes of a region
also play an important part in determining soil
characteristics. The relationship of these
factors is as shown in figure 3.1.

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than others. Acidic rocks are more
resistant to weathering than basic rocks.
The parent rock affects soil texture and
water permeability.
Parent rock with fine particles is more

resistant to chemical weathering than
mechanical weathering. Very compact
parent rocks like sandstone are very much
resistant to weathering. Porous rocks
weather easily by chemical processes.
This is because they have large surface
areas for weathering agents to act upon.
Climate
Climate is the principal factor

governing the rate and type of soil
formation as well as being the main
agent determining the distribution of
vegetation. The dead vegetations
decay to form humus as one of the
components of the soil.
To understand well the influence of

climate on soil formation let us have

a look at its components and how
each of these components affects
soil formation.
NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARY

TemperatureSOLVED EXAMS PAST PAPERS BOOKS OTHERS
The main effect of temperature

on soil is to influence the rate
of reactions; for every 10°C rise
in temperature, the speed of a
chemical reaction increases by
a factor of 2 or 3 (twice or
thrice). Temperature, therefore,
influences the speed of
disintegration and
decomposition of the parent
materials and its consolidation
to form the soil.
Rainfall (water)
The water in soils includes all

forms of water that enter the
soil system and is derived
mainly from precipitation as
rain. The water entering soils
contains appreciable amounts
of dissolved carbodioxide,
forming a weak carbonic acid.
This dilute, weak acid solution
is more reactive than pure
water. It thus reacts with
unconsolidated minerals and
organic matter, breaking them
down into mineral (clay, sand)
and organic debris (humus)
respectively.

Organisms
The organisms influencing the

development of soils range from
NURSERY PRIMARY microscopic SOLVED
SECONDARY bacteria
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mammals including man. In fact,

nearly every organism which lives on
the surface of the earth or in the soil
affects the development of soils in
one way or another. More important
soil organisms of interest to soil
formation are as follows:
Higher plants.
Higher plants (particularly

grasses) extend their roots into
the soil and act as binders. So
they prevent soil erosion. The
roots also assist in binding
together small groups of
particles hence developing a
crumby or granular structure.
Large roots are agents of
physical weathering as they
open and widen cracks in rocks
and stones. When plants die
they contribute organic matter
to the soil, which acts as a
binder of the soil particles.
Higher plants intercept rain and
they shelter the soil from the
impact of raindrops. They also
shade the soil and hence
reduce evaporation.
Vertebrates

Mammals such as moles,
ground squirrels and mice
burrow deeply into the soil and
cause considerable mixing up
of the soil, often by bringing up
subsoil to the surface, and
creating burrows through which
the top soil can fall and
accumulate within the subsoil.
Microogarnisms
These include bacteria, fungi,

actinomycetes, algae and
protozoa. These organisms act
as decomposers of organic and
even mineral matter.
Mesofauna
These include earthworms,

nematodes, millipedes,
centipedes and many insects,
particularly termites and ants.
Activities of mesofauna
include:
ingesting organic mineral

materials e.g. earthworms
and millipedes;
transportation of materials
e.g. earthworms, millipedes,
termites, beetles, etc; and
improvement of soil
structure and aeration.
Man

Activities of man are too many
and too diverse. Man‟s roles
include:
NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARYCultivation of

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production of food and tree

crops, which in many cases
has negative effects
causing impoverishment of
the soil and erosion.
Indiscrimate grazing, casual

burning, cutting of trees,
manure and fertilizer use, all
of which alter the soil
characteristics.
Relief (Topography)
This refers to the outline of the

earth‟s surface. All land surfaces are
constantly changing through
weathering and erosion. It may take
millions of years, in the case of
Himalayas and the Andes, to be worn
down to flat undulating surfaces. The
soils on steep mountain slopes are
shallow and often stony and contain
many primary minerals. In areas
where the difference in elevation
between the highest and the lowest
point is great, then climatic changes
are introduced. These differences in
elevation, slope, slope direction,
moisture and soil characteristics lead
to the formation of a number of
interesting soil sequences.
Time 
Soil formation is a very slow process
requiring thousands and even
millions of years. Hence, it is
impossible to make definite
statements about the various stages
in the development of soils.This is
because it takes a considerable
period of time for a particular soil
type to be formed and categorized.
Soil Reaction
The Concept of Soil Reaction
Explain the concept of soil reaction
Soil reaction refers to how acidic or alkaline a

soil is. It is expressed as a pH value. The soil
can be acidic, neutral or alkaline. Extremely
acidic soils can have pH values below 4.5 and
on the other hand, very alkaline soils can have
pH values up to,and even higher than 9.0.
Nearly all soils have pH values between 4 and

8. Soils with pH< 4 generally contain sulphuric
(IV) acid, while those with pH <8 contain a high
percentage of Na+ ions and thus they are
alkaline.
pH is defined as the negative logarithm (to

base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity
(concentration):
pH = -log10[H+] where [H+] denotes the

concentration of H+ ionsin grams/litre. This is

the same as saying that pH is the logarithmof
the reciprocal of [H+]:
The greater the [H+], the lower the pH and the

more acidic the soil is. Acidic soils are
common in humid regions, particularly the
tropics, where rainfall is sufficiently high to
leach the exchangeable bases from the top
soil. Alkaline soils, on the other hand, are
characteristic of the arid regions of the world
where,because of low rainfall, there is a high
concentration of basic cations (Ca2+, Mg2+,
Na+, etc) in the surface soil layer.
Generally,acidic soils occupy a large area of
arable land than alkaline soils do. Because of
this, acidic soils are considered to be more
important, at the practical level, as compared
to alkaline soils.
Causes of soil acidity

Having known that the soil can be acidic
and that the acidity is a result of great
concentration of H+ ions in the soil, let us
know look at the causes of soil acidity. The
causes of soil acidity include the following:
1 Leaching: Heavy rains may leach bases

like Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ andNa+ from the
soil to the ground water table, leaving a
surplus ofH+(aq) in the soil.
2 Soil Microorganisms and root

respiration produce carbon dioxide

which forms weak carbonic acid with
the soil solution.
3 Near industrial regions, acid rain (often

pH 2–4) may bring sulphuric (IV) acid
and nitric (V) acid to the soil.
4 Acid mineral fertilizers, like ammonium

sulphate (VI) andammonium chloride
make the soil solution more acidic due
to oxidation and hydrolysis:
Oxidation:
Hydrolysis:
Also the NH4OH produced by oxidation

and hydrolysis dissociates further to give
NH4+ and OH– ions. The NH4+ ions
produced undergoes microbial and
enzymatic oxidation (as show above) to
release more H+ ions to the soil.
5. Nitrification of ammonium ions by

bacteria produces H+(aq):
6. Organic acids produced during the

decomposition of organic matter also
contribute to soil acidity. Due to such
reasons, most soils in the humid tropics
are acidic.

7. The Al3+ ions present in soil solution
contribute to soil acidity indirectly when
they are hydrolysed:
For simplicity and easy understanding, the

equation for hydrolysis of Al3+ ions is
sometimes represented in a single
equation as:
8. Small amounts of ions such as NO3‾,

NO2‾, H2PO4‾, SO42‾and Cl‾ present in
the soil solution also contribute to soil
acidity.
The above causes to soil acidity can be

categorized as either natural or artificial.
The artificial causes are acid rain and acid
mineral fertilizers which are a result of
deliberate human actions. The rest of the
causes are classified natural because they
occur naturally.
The pH of a Given Soil Sample
Measure the pH of a given soil sample
The pH of a soil can be tested by using Soil pH

Kit. The kitcomprises of equipment and dyes
(pigments) that are employed insoil pH
determination.

Soil pH kit is simple to use and can be used

many times. Colour indicator dye and chart
easily helps to find out pH. Knowledge of soil
pH is very important to a farmer. Most plants
grow well in soils with pH ranging between 5.5
and 7.5.
The following is a quick and accurate way to

find soil pH using a soil pH kit:
1. Getting prepared
First collect your equipment
You will need a clean trowel and a

clean container for each sample you
take. You can use clean boxes,
plastic bags, or any convenient
container to collect your sample. For
powder-based kits you will need
distilled water for the test itself.
Decide where to take the samples
Soil pH can vary in different parts of

your garden either naturally or
through different types and levels of
cultivation. You may be able to see
clear differences in colour, texture

and humus content. Therefore, aim
to take a number of samples from
different areas and test each one
separately.
2. Collecting the soil samples

For each area you are sampling, scrape
away the top soil to a depth of about 5 cm.
This prevents the reading being affected by
any top dressings or mulches you have
applied or any accumulation of leaf litter or
pine needles.
Now break up the soil to a depth of about

12 cm and take the sample from the
bottom level. Collect more than you think
you will need as you will be picking out all
the lumps, stones, twigs etc. Make sure
you label each sample so that you know
where they have come from.
3. Sample preparation
- Pick out any stones, roots and twigs and
leave the sample to dry.

- Break up the dry sample with the back of

a clean teaspoon or the tip of a clean
trowel, and place the specified amount in
the test tube or test chamber provided.
4. Carry out the pH test

This stage will vary depending on the type
of kit you have purchased.Before going any
further, it is important to note that soil pH
test is purely a qualitative test. In this test,
barium sulphate is often used as a
reagent.
Use of barium sulphate
Barium sulphate is used in soil

testing as a flocculant. It causes the
fine soil particles to clump together
and sink, leaving a clear test solution.
This enables you to make an
accurate colour comparison. If you
have a clay soil with lots of fine
particles you may need to add extra
barium sulphate to clear the liquid.
This is another advantage of liquid-
based tests where the barium 
sulphate powder is provided
separately.
Liquid-based kits
If your kit contains a liquid test
solution, you will usually have to add
a scoop of the provided barium
sulphate powder to the sample
followed by the specified amount of
test solution. If you have a clay-
based soil it is useful to add extra
barium sulphate right at the start. Put
the cap on the test tube and shake it
well. Leave it to settle for the required
time, normally 10 minutes.
Powder-based kits
For kits containing the reagent in

powder form you will have to add the
specified quantity of powder (this
usually contains the appropriate
amount of barium sulphate as well
as the reagent) followed by the
required amount of distilled water.
Put the cap on the test tube and
shake well to mix. Allow to settle for
the specified time, usually around 10
minutes.
5. Read the results

Compare the resulting colour of the
solution against the supplied colour chart.
Don't leave the solution for much longer
than the stated time because the colour
may start to change and you won't get an 
accurate result. Try to do this in good
natural light but away from bright sunlight
to make an accurate comparison.The
following are the results obtained from two
soil samples tested: The sample from the
West Border (above) is neutral (it is neither
acidic nor basic).
The soil sample from the North-east

border, however, was found to be acidic,
with pH 6.0. The soil contains a lot of
organic matter, such as garden compost
and rotten manure, which tends to lower
soil pH, making it more acidic.
However, both soils fall well within the pH

range (5.5 to 7.5) acceptable to most
plants so the farmer can just carry on with
farming as before. There is no need for soil
pH amelioration.

Determination of the soil pH is important

because it helps to identify the pH of
different soils and hence making the
correct decision on different kinds of crops
that can be grown on a soil with a
particular pH.
Plant growth is affected by the acidity or

alkalinity (pH) of the soil. Soils with high
peat content, or with minerals such as iron
compounds, or with rotting vegetation and
lack of oxygen, tend to be acidic. Their pH
can reach as low as pH 4. Soils in
limestone orchalky areas are alkaline (up
to pH 8.3). Different plants prefer different
pH conditions. Farmers and gardeners can
test the soil pH to see whether it suits the
needs of particular plants. An example of
preferred soil pH conditions for different
crops is given below:
Crop
Irish potato
Chicory, parsley

Carrot, sweet potato
Cauliflower, garlic, tomato
Broad bean, onion, cabbage and many others
Managing e Soil pH by Using Different

Liming Materials
Manage the soil pH by using different liming materials
If the soil is strongly acidic (pH < 5), most

crops will give only very poor yields if any. In
such a soil, the acidic H+(aq) and Al3+(aq) ions
prevail while the basic nutrient ions such as
Na+, Mg2+. Ca2+, etc are not sufficiently
available.
In order to raise the pH of such a soil, basic

compounds of calcium and magnesium are
added and mixed well with the top soil; e.g. the
oxides, hydroxides, carbonates and silicates of
calcium and magnesium, commonly called
agricultural limes. All these compounds have
the effect of neutralizing the acidity of the soil.
If the soil is too alkaline, it helps to dig
When lime is added to an acidic soil, the liming

material usually reacts with the water and/or
with the carbonic acid in the soil and dissolves
e.g:

All liming materials, directly or after
dissolution, react with hydrogen ions (H+)
adsorbed on the soil colloids e.g:
Thus, by liming an acid soil, the percentage

base saturation and the pH of the soil is raised
and carbon dioxide is produced. The amount of
lime needed depends on the pH of the soil, its
texture, structure and its content of organic
matter.
Overliming, that is, raising the soil pH to above

7.5, is a danger especially in soils of low cation
exchange capacity and hence low reserve
acidity. It reduces the availability of P, K, Fe, Mn,
B and Zn often so much that crops suffer from
the deficiencies of these nutrients. Often, crops
become stunted and turn yellow. Therefore,
overliming must be avoided by all means.
Plant Nutrients in The Soil
The Essential Plant Nutrients
Categorize the essential plant nutrients 

MACRO AND MICRONUTRIENTS
Macronutrients are those mineral nutrients that

are required by plants in greater amounts. They
constitute about 99% of plants‟ requirements.
Macronutrients, also referred to as major

nutrients are further divided into primary and
secondary macronutrients. Primary
macronutrients are the elements that are
required by plants in relatively large quantities
(60% of the plant‟s requirements). They are
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The
secondary macronutrients are calcium,
magnesium and sulphur. These elements
contribute the remaining 39% of the plant‟s
needs
Micronutrients, also referred to as trace

elements, are those mineral nutrients that are
required by plants in smaller amounts. They
constitute about 1% of plants‟ requirements.
Plants use the sugars for energy supply and to

produce cellulose (for the cell walls) and starch
(for storage). Proteins are made from sugar
and nitrogen. They are used to synthesize
protoplasm which is vital for the plant cells.
INTAKE OF NUTRIENTS BY PLANTS


Except for some gaseous carbon dioxide,
oxygen and sulphur dioxide, all nutrients enter
the plants in the form of ions usually from the
soil solution through the roots.
The metals are absorbed by the plant roots in

the form of their cations. Nitrogen is taken in
as ammonium or nitrate (V) ions; phosphorus
as dihydrogenphosphate (V) ions; sulphur as
sulphate (VI) ions and chlorine as chloride
ions.
The nutrient ions move towards the plant roots

either with the flow of the soil solution (since
the roots also take in water) or by diffusion.
The ions diffuse from areas of high
concentration to those of low concentration
caused by the intake by the roots.
Plant roots either absorb equal numbers of

positive and negative charges in the form of
ions from the soil solution or they exchange
one ion against another one with the same
charge, usually H+ or OH–. Thus, roots
possess electrical charges on their surfaces
which can hold and exchange ions.
The Functions of Each of e Primary

Macronutrients in Plant Grow
Explain the functions of each of the primary macronutrients

in plant growth
AVAILABILITY, FUNCTION AND DEFICIENCY OF

PLANT NUTRIENTS

All essential plant nutrients perform specific
functions to aid plant growth or reproduction.
They must all be available in the right
proportion to facilitate optimum plant growth.
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Availability: carbon and oxygen are taken in by

plants through the stomata in the form of
carbon dioxide from the air. Thus, they are
never in scarce supply. Hydrogen (and oxygen)
is supplied by water
Use in the plant: in the presence of sunlight, the

green parts of the plant synthesize
carbohydrates (sugars) from carbon dioxide
and water.
Deficiency symptoms: plants wilt and die if

they do not obtain sufficient water.
Nitrogen
Availability: only ammonium and nitrate (V)

ions are available to plants. Usually about 98%
of a soil‟s nitrogen is available (in organic
matter). Organic matter decomposes by
microbial action to form NH4+. This process is
called ammonification. Almost any microbe
can carry out ammonification.
There is another process called nitrification,

which is carried out only by a few specific
bacteria e.g. nitrosomanas. Nitrosomanas
bacteria oxidize ammonium ions to nitrate (V)
ions:

A few living organisms can fix nitrogen from
the air. The best known are rhizobia (legume
bacteria) and the free living bacteria such as
azotobacter and clostridium, also the blue-
green algae.
Plant needs: plants need more nitrogen than

any other nutrient. However, their needs vary
greatly: plants with high vegetative growth
(stems, leaves, etc) have high N needs (maize,
sorghum, rice, sugar cane, pasture grasses,
most vegetables). Root crops (cassava, sweet
potatoes, taro) have lower N needs. Legumes
(alfalfa, desmodium, kudzu, all types of beans
and peas, ground nuts, etc) may not need N
fertilization if the proper strain of rhizobia is
fixing N for them.
Use in the plant
It is used to build amino acids, nucleic

acids, many enzymes, chlorophyll, generally
speaking: all proteins.
It promotes the vegetative growth in plants.

It is therefore important in the growth of
plants in which leaves are harvested, such
tobacco and vegetables.
It is an essential element in cell division. It

is therefore needed for plant growth.
It increases grain size and protein content

in cereals.
It promotes root growth.
Deficiency symptoms: leaves turn yellow and

finally die, because chlorophyll can not be build
up. Then due to lack of chlorophyll the plant

grows slowly, because the chlorophyll is
needed for carbohydrate production. The
shortage of chlorophyll is called chlorosis.

Excess nitrogen: excess nitrogen causes dark
green succulent vegetation with weak stems,
often at the expense of seed or fruit
production, e.g. in grain crops, in tomatoes and
beans.
It causes the potatoes to be watery. It delays

crop maturity, and makes plants more
vulnerable to attack by diseases and pests.
Thus, fertilizers must be carefully dosed.
Available N is easily leached since NH4+ is

rapidly nitrified in a warm climate, and NO3– is
not adsorbed by soil colloids. Thus, it is
important to apply fertilizer at the right time in
order to avoid leaching.
Phosphorus
Availability: only H2PO4– and to a lesser extent

HPO42– are available to plants.
Plant needs: plants need less phosphorus than

nitrogen or potassium.
Use in plant
Phosphorus is an essential component of

the genetic material of the cell nucleus
(RNA, DNA); also in ADP and ATP, which
play a vital role in photosynthesis, amino
acid and fat metabolism, etc.
It increases the grain yield e.g. of millet,

sorghum and rice because it promotes the 
formation of tillers.
It promotes root growth.
It strengthens the resistance of plants to

NURSERY diseases.
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Also rhizobia bacteria need it in order to fix

nitrogen from the air.
It hastens plant maturity.
Deficiency symptoms
Dark green colouration
Purple spots or streaks.
Stunting, delayed maturity.
Fertilizers: superphosphates, triple phosphates,

ammonium phosphates.
Potassium
Availability: only the K+ ions of the soil solution

are available to plants. Hydrated potassium
ions attached to soil colloids are readily
available because they are not bonded strongly
to the surface of the colloids.
After nitrogen, potassium is the second-most

element needed by plants. Starch and sugar
crops (cassava, sweet potatoes, banana,
sugarcane) have relatively high needs of K.
Use in plants. Potassium is present in plants in

the form of it ions only. It does not form any
integral part of the structure of any known
organic compounds in plants.
Potassium is an activator of a number of

enzymes involved amino acid synthesis and 
several enzymes concerned with
carbohydrate and nucleic acid metabolism.
Potassium aids in the uptake of other

nutrients and in their movements within the
plant e.g. potassium ions and nitrate (V)
ions may move together.
Potassium is also important in the

metabolism of carbohydrates and
translocation of food. Thus, it promotes
starch and sugar formation.
It regulates osmosis in cells, improves

tissue formation and assists in protein
synthesis.
It strengthens plant stalk, hence preventing

lodging and microbial attack.
Deficiency symptoms.
Stunting: First the edges of the older leaves

and then areas between veins turn yellow
and finally brown. Small, brown necrotic
spots develop while the veins are still
green.
Leaf curling and premature leaf fall.
Fertilizers: potassium chloride, potassium

sulphate, potassium nitrate. Wood ashes and
their aqueous extract (potash) contain
potassium carbonate. Tobacco stems contain
about 5% potassium, and cocoa shell meal
about 3%.
Calcium
Availability: only Ca2+ ions in the soil solution

are available to plants. Calcium comes from

CaCO3 (calcite), gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O),
apatite and other minerals.
Use in plants.
Calcium is a constituent of cell walls and
hence makes the straw stiff and resistant
to lodging.
It is essential for cell division.
It promotes early root and seed

development.
It regulates the intake of potassium by

plants.
It neutralizes harmful organic acids like

ethanedioic (oxalic) acid in plants, thus
detoxifying them:
Magnesium
Availability: plants take in Mg2+(aq) through

roots and leaves.
Use in plant;
Magnesium is vital to the production of

chlorophyll, because every molecule of
chlorophyll contains a magnesium ion at
the core of its complex structure. Most of
the magnesium in plants is found in either
chlorophyll or seeds. A lesser part is
distributed in other parts.
Aids in the translocation of carbohydrates.


Regulates the uptake of other nutrients.
Part of the distributed magnesium
functions in the enzyme system involved in
carbohydrate metabolism.
NURSERY Fertilizers:
PRIMARY Mostly SOLVED
SECONDARY dolomitic
EXAMS limestone
(CaCO3·MgCO3). The principal magnesium

fertilizer is magnesium sulphate (VI),
sometimes known as epsom salt. It is soluble
in water and can be sprayed onto the leaves.
Sulphur
Availability: Plants take in sulphate (VI) ions

(SO42–) from the soil solution and sulphur
dioxide from the air.
Its Use in plants.
Sulphur is a vital part of plant proteins

since cystine and methionine are sulphur-
containing amino acids.
Sulphur is also essential for the action of

enzymes involved in nitrate (V) production.
The Deficiency symptoms,
Sulphur deficiency symptoms resemble

nitrogen deficiency symptoms because both
are related to protein and chlorophyll
deficiency.
Fertilizers: gypsum and elemental sulphur, both

of which are also used to lower soil pH;
ammonium sulphate, superphosphate
potassium sulphate (VI).
Iron

Occurrence: In igneous rocks, iron occurs in the
Fe2+ form. The iron in water-logged soils tends
to remain in this form and contributes to the
bluish-grey colours that indicate wetness.
Much of the iron in well drained soils is in the
Fe3+ form and is associated with humus and
mineral particles.
Availability: Plants absorb iron in the form of

Fe2+ and Fe3+.
Use in plants;
Iron is an essential catalyst in the formation of

chlorophyll and functions in some of the
enzymes of the respiratory system. Iron is
needed in larger quantity than all other
micronutrients.
Its Deficiency symptoms,
An iron deficiency results in the young leaves

being small and pale green or yellow in colour.
Fertilizers: Iron (II) sulphate (FeSO4) which is

soluble in water. Application of iron is generally
ineffective to calcareous soils.
THE OTHER MICRONUTRIENTS

Availability: Micronutrients are taken in by
plants as Bo2–, Co2+, Cu2+, Mn2+, MoO2–
and Zn2+. The micronutrients in the soil
usually originate from the parent material
of the soil. Plant needs of these
micronutrients are very small.

Use in plants: Most micronutrients are
used as catalysts in plant metabolism:
Manganese is a catalyst in the

NURSERY PRIMARY formation
SECONDARYof chlorophyll
SOLVED EXAMSand PAST
in many
PAPERS BOOKS OTHERS
redox reactions, e.g. metabolism of
nitrogen, iron, copper, zinc and in
vitamin C synthesis.
Boron aids protein synthesis, regulates

the K:Ca ratio in plant tissues and is
required for the formation of roots and
fruits.
Copper is involved in respiration and in

the nitrogen and iron metabolism.
Molybdenum is essential in the protein

synthesis and for the nitrogen fixation
by rhizobia on the roots of legumes.
Zinc catalyses the formation of growth

hormones and promotes the synthesis
of RNA and chloroplasts. Thus it is
essential for normal growth.
Chlorine seems to be essential in

photosynthesis and is required for
plant growth.
Cobalt is essential for nitrogen fixation

by rhizobia and hence aids growth of
legumes. However, it is not clear
whether it is essential for growth of
higher plants.
Fertilization: Large amounts of

micronutrients are usually toxic to plants.
The best method of application is usually
foliar spraying.

Preparation of Plant Nutrient Cultures in e
Lab at y
Prepare plant nutrient cultures in the laboratory

Nutrient cultures are prepared in the laboratory
by using chemicals such as CaSO4,
Ca3(PO4)2, MgSO4 and KNO3. These salts are
dissolved in water to make cultures containing
ions of plant mineral elements. Different
cultures lacking some mineral nutrients are
made and used to grow plants. The health of
plants in various cultures is compared with
those grown in a culture with all elements.
Mangaging e Loss of Plant Nutrients from

e Soil
Manage the loss of plant nutrients from the soil
Crop plants take up nutrients from the soil

continuously. To maintain the soil fertility, the
nutrients taken by plants must be replenished
(replaced). There are several methods that
when combined at least in some aspects can
help raise or maintain soil fertility. These are:
Addition of inorganic fertilizers

and manure
Inorganic (industrial) fertilizers
Fertilizers are mostly inorganic

compounds which contain one or
more plant nutrients in a
concentrated form. They help to
increase or maintain fertility if used

carefully with a good background of
knowledge. However, if used without
proper knowledge or advice by
agricultural officers they can be
harmful to the soil, crops, animals
and humans.
It should also be noted that without

reasonable humus content, the soil
may have such a low cation
exchange capacity that most of the
applied fertilizer is leached from the
soil instead of being available to
plants.
Thus, just adding fertilizer on a field

without good cropping system and,
advisably, with addition of manure is
often a waste of money, time and
energy.
Organic fertilizers (manures)
There are different kinds of manures

that can be applied to the soil. These
include:
biogas manure - from biogas

plants-
farm yard manure - from wastes

of farm animals such as cattle,
sheep, goats, poultry, pigs,
donkeys, etc;-
compost manure – from

decomposed organic matter; and-
leguminous green manures, like

sunhemp, beans, cowpeas, 
groundnuts, peas, etc. These
young plant materials when
ploughed and incorporated into
the soil provide organic matter
NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARY SOLVED EXAMS
and nitrogen. PAST PAPERS BOOKS OTHERS
Prevention of soil erosion

Most plant nutrients are concentrated on
the top soil. If this soil is eroded the
nutrients are lost too. This can be stopped
by taking soil conservation measures
which include mulching terracing/ridging,
deep tillage, contour ploughing, strip
cropping, planting shelter belts or
windbreaks, reforestation, avoiding
overgrazing and overstocking, etc.
Crop rotation
This refers to the practice of planting
different crops in a field in successive
growing seasons. A good crop rotation is
that which include leguminous crops
(which fix nitrogen in the soil) followed by
non-leguminous crops and vice-versa.
Intercropping
Intercropping refers to the act of planting
two different crops (preferably legumes
with non-legumes) on the same field.
Legumes provide nitrogen to non-legumes
and the non-legumes help to cover the soil
to prevent erosion.
Agroforestry

This refers to mixed cropping of e.g.
cereals and usually leguminous trees like
Leucaena leucocephala, which provide
nitrogen to the field. The trees take up
nutrients from the deeper layers of the soil
while the cereals take up their nutrients
from the top layers. Leguminous trees
provide the cereals with the humus when
their leaves fall and rot on the soil. They
also provide forage for animals, and
firewood. Agroforestry is also one of the
protections against soil erosion.
Good harvesting practices

Crop remnants harvest should not be burnt
down but they must be ploughed and
incorporated into the soil. This will help to
maintain adequate levels of organic matter
in the soil and hence reduce soil erosion.
Also by burning crop residues, valuable
plant nutrients (N, P and S) are lost and the
chance to increase humus level of the soil
is reduced.
Prevention of leaching
Leaching refers to loss of plant nutrients
from the top to the bottom soil layers,
following heavy rains or overirrigation. This
can partly be stopped or reduced by
maintaining adequate levels of soil organic
matter to trap the nutrients and also by
avoiding too much irrigation. It can also be
stopped by avoiding overcultivation, a fact
which makes the soil too loose that the
nutrients are easily percolated with the soil

solution to the bottom soil layers making
these nutrients unavailable to plants.
Following /bush fallow

This refers to leaving the land idle to rest, a
fact which allows the land time to regain
its lost fertility. However this practice is
only possible for farmers with plenty of
land. It was an equally good practice in the
past when human population was low as
compared to vastness of the land at that
time. It is not widely practiced today
except in areas with low population density
and abundant arable land.
Soil conservation
Taking soil conservation measures such as
terracing, contour ploughing, mulching,
deep tillage, etc. will help maintain soil
fertility.
Cultivation of the appropriate

crops for the soil
Different crops are suited to different soil
types. If you plant crops in a wrong soil you
are likely to weaken that soil and destroy
its fertility status. But if appropriate crops
are planted in the right soil type, chances
of maintaining or sustaining the fertility of
that soil is also very high.
Good farming practices

Adoption of appropriate soil amendment
practice such as liming, acidification,
conversion, etc helps to maintain soil 
fertility. For example, liming is good as it
corrects soil acidity but if too much lime
(overliming) is applied it results to another
problem of setting on soil alkalinity.
Likewise, an acid soil, no matter how much
beneficial nutrients it contains, is of no use
unless its acidity is corrected
Avoidance and/or control of soil

pollution
Avoid dependence and overuse of
agrochemicals such as pesticides,
herbicides and inorganic fertilizers
unnecessarily. These chemicals must be
used with care and only where agricultural
production is impossible without their
application. This is because they
contribute a great deal to soil pollution and
toxification of beneficial soil organisms.
Nutrient balance maintenance

The balance of nutrients in the soil must
always be maintained. Plants usually
require specific quantities of different
nutrient elements. These nutrients must be
maintained in the soil by good cropping
systems, application of appropriate
fertilizers and manure and adopting good
soil management practices.
Manures and Fertilizers

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
Fertilizer refers to any
natural/manufactured/synthetic materials that
contain at least 5% or more of one or more of the
NURSERY PRIMARY plant
primary SECONDARY SOLVED EXAMS
nutrients/element (N, PPAST
or PAPERS
K). BOOKS OTHERS
Examples of fertilizers include ammonium nitrate,

sulphate of ammonia, CAN, NPK, etc.
Manure refers to any fertilizer material, from plant

or animal bodies or wastes. Examples of manures
include farm yard manure (from domesticated
animal wastes), green manure (from young green
leguminous plants), and heap and compost
manure (from decomposed plants). Manures are
sometimes called organic fertilizers.
Preparation of Heap and Pit Compost Manure
Prepare heap and pit compost manure
Steps:
1 Dig compost pit;
2 Place dry plant materials. Sprinkle enough

water;
3 The next layer will be composed of green

plant materials or any refuse
4 Top this with a mixture of animal manure,

soil, and ash;
5 Repeat steps 2-4 until the pile reaches a

height of 1 m;
6 Cover the pit with broad-leaved plants;
7 Turn the pile every two weeks. The

compost is ready after 3-4 months.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of
Natural Manures
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of natural

NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARY SOLVED EXAMS manures
Manures have got several advantages and

disadvantages. Some of these are explained
below:
Advantages
1 They add nutrients to the soil and at the
same time improve soil physical
properties such as soil colour, soil
structure and water holding capacity of
the soil. A soil with good content of
organic matter (supplied by manure)
holds water and dissolved nutrients
efficiently making them available to crop
plants.
2 Manures supply humus to soil which, in

turn, increases the cation exchange
capacity of the soil. Humus accounts for
30–90% of the cation exchange capacity
of mineral soils. And because of its high
cation exchange capacity, humus helps to
store nutrient cations, especially
ammonium ions, thus reducing the
leaching of these nutrients from the soil.
3 Manures improve the proliferation of the

soil macro- and microorganisms by
supplying the nutrients and conducive
conditions needed by these organisms for
survival. These organisms play a vital role
in soil fertility and plant nutrition by
decomposing organic matter which
releases nutrients to the

4 Manures provide organic matter which
acts as the binding materials for soil
particles, making them more compact and
hence resistant to the impact of rain drops
NURSERY PRIMARY
and SECONDARY
surface runSOLVED
off ofEXAMS
water. PAST PAPERS
Thus, it BOOKS OTHERS
reduces soil erosion.
5 Manures can remain in the soil for a long

time and they can provide the nutrients to
crops for several growing seasons. Its
nutrients are released slowly over a long
period of time
6 They do not change the soil pH greatly as

the inorganic fertilizers do.
7 Humus from organic matter is dark in

colour and imparts this black colouration
to the soil. Black colour absorbs more
heat and hence helps to regulate soil
temperature.
Disadvantages
1 Manures contain and provide little
nutrients per unit volume and weight. One
has to apply tremendous amounts of
manure to meet the requirements of
plants.
2 Their bulkiness and volume makes it

difficult to store, handle or apply in the
field. It requires more space to store or
transport and more labour to apply
manures in the field.
3 Some kinds of manures e.g. sludge or

industrial and municipal wastes may
contain toxic chemicals which can harm
humans, animals or soils to which it is
applied.

4 Manures act very slowly in that they
release nutrients to the soil at a very slow
rate.
5 If the plant materials used to make

manure is infested with plant pests or
weed seeds; or infected with diseases,
there is a risk of spreading them to the
farm.
6 Manures easily lose nutrients if stored

improperly. Under hot conditions, manures
produce a lot of heat that leads to loss
of136nitrogen through vapourization.
Soluble nutrients are easily leached
Types of Syn etic Fertilisers Used in

Tanzania
Mention types of synthetic fertilisers used in Tanzania
Farmers in different parts of the country use

different fertilizers (depending on soil
conditions) to improve soil fertility. Examples
of fertilizers used by farmers in Tanzania
include:
Sulphate of ammonia, (NH4)SO4;
Calcium Ammonium Nitrate, CAN;
NPK;
Superphosphates;
Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl;
Urea, CO(NH2)2
Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3;
Potassium sulphate, K2SO4
Potassium chloride, KCl; etc.


The Concept of Fertiliser Grades and Analysis
Explain the concept of fertiliser grades and analysis

A fertilizer is any substance containing plant
nutrients that is usually added to soil to
supplement the required plant nutrients.
Chemical fertilizers may be natural or
synthetic. Natural inorganic fertilizers would
include materials such as Chile saltpetre
(NaNO3), rock phosphate, potassium chloride
(KCl), etc. Synthetic fertilizers are
manufactured products, such as urea,
ammonium sulphate, ammonium phosphate,
single superphospahte, etc.
Synthetic fertilizers are available in various

grades and analyses. A complete fertilizer has
all three primary fertilizer ingredients (N, P and
K) as part of its formulation. For example, 14 –
15 – 14 is a complete fertilizer. This fertilizer
has 14%N, 15%P and 14%K.
Fertilizers may be classified according to the

nutrient elements present. Fertilizers may be:
Single nutrient fertilizer or straight

fertilizers: These are fertilizers containing
only one of the primary nutrient elements.
Double nutrient fertilizer: These contain two

primary nutrient elements.
Complete fertilizers or complex fertilizers:

These are materials that contain all three
primary elements, N, P and K.
Types of fertilizers

Now let us look at few common fertilizer
materials and their grades.
In most of the commercials fertilizers P is

expressed as P2O5 and K as K2O. To convert
P2O5 to P, multiply the value by 0.437 and to
convert K2O to K, multiply the value by 0.830.
However, in table 3.1 the nutrient contents are
given in elemental form, N, P and K.
The nutrient fertilizer grade indicates that

everything in a bag of fertilizer is not plant
nutrient. Much of the material in the bag is
made up of filler materials. For example,
ammonium sulphate contains 20%N. That
means, 100 Kg of ammonium sulphate will
contain 20 Kg of N and the remaining 80 Kg is
sulphate and filler material.

With this background about fertilizer material,

we need to calculate the amounts of each
nutrient source to meet the fertilizer
recommendations. Fertilizer recommendations
are expressed in kilograms of nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) per hectare.
Fertilizers available in the market also contain
carrier and filler materials in addition to N, P, or
K. Hence, there is need to compute the amount
of fertilizer required to supply the
recommended rate of nutrients.For example, if
90 Kg of N is recommended for sorghum, we
must convert this recommendation to Kg of
urea or some other N fertilizer to be applied.
Example 1
A certain soil requires 80 Kg of N per

hectare so as to fulfil plantrequirements
of nitrogen. Calculate, in kilograms, the
quantity ofammonium sulphate fertilizer
required to meet this demand.

Me ods of Fertilizer Application
Identify methods of fertilizer application
Fertilizers can be applied in several ways. The

most important point to remember is to apply
them at the proper rate, as over application can
result in plant damage or death. Follow soil
recommendations or manufacture‟s directions.
Some of the common fertilizer application
methods are as follows:
Broadcasting
Broadcasting refers to spreading the
fertilizer uniformly over theentire area
before planting and then incorporating it
into the soil.Application of high rates of the
major nutrients namely,
nitrogen,potassium and phosphorus is
usually carried out by broadcastingwith a
tractor-mounted fertilizer spreader. This
allows a specific amount of fertilizer to be
spread over the entire under-tree area or in
band along the row.

Monitoring of the application rate for the
various fertilizers which are used is
important. If calibration is not done
properly, the quantity applied may be
considerably different to the desired rate.
Soon after spreading, the fertilizer should

be covered with the surface soil to a depth
of 4 to 6 inches or alternatively watered in.
On alkaline soils, prompt incorporation into
the soil profile is vital for nitrogenous
fertilizers as they are readily lost into the
atmosphere (volatized) in the form of
ammonia if left exposed on the soil
surface.
Broadcasting is particularly good:
In soils whose fertility status is

extremely low;
In closely spaced crops such as rice,

wheat, pasture, millet, etc;
If the fertilizer used is in fine particles

(granules or powdered); and
If the field is properly prepared and is in

good tilth.
Fertigation
Fertigation refers to the application of
nutrients through an irrigation system. In
this method, liquid fertilizers such as liquid
ammonia, nitrogen solutions, phosphoric
acids and even complete fertilizers are
applied to the soil via irrigation water. The
nutrients are spread onto the soil in
solution and then carried down with the 
infiltrating water. It provides a simple and
effective way to supply nutrients,
particularly nitrogen and potassium. Most
trickle, jet, spray and sprinkler systems can
be used. Do not attempt fertigation using
flood or furrow irrigation as the distribution
of nutrients will be uneven and leaching
will occur.
Fertigation has the advantage of supplying

nutrients to the area of greatest root
activity that is, the irrigated part of the root
zone.Depending on the irrigation system
used, applications of fertilizer may need to
be split over several irrigations. This also
improves the percentage taken up and
utilized by the plant. Frequent applications
are easy to apply and there is no soil
compaction problem as would be the case
with broadcasting with a tractor.
Before injecting a nutrient into an irrigation

system ensure that the form being used is
suitable. Some nutrients are readily soluble
in irrigation water while other nutrients
must be specially formulated for
fertigation. For example, most forms of
phosphorus are not suited to fertigation as
they tend to precipitate out and block the
small orifices of irrigation emitters.
Foliar sprays/applications
This refers to spraying a dilute nutrient
solution directly to the plant leaves. Foliar
application is used for the correction of
trace element deficiencies. It should not be 
relied upon to supply the total nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium needs of
plants. Commonly required foliar sprays
are zinc and manganese. Foliar application
has the benefit of rapid response as the
nutrients are taken into the plant quickly.
Foliar applications of micronutrients,
especially iron, may be beneficial when
high soil pH conditions make the iron
unavailable to plant roots.
Generally, uptake is enhanced by low pH,

thus there is benefit in adjusting the pH of
the spray solution to slightly acidic.
Often foliar applications are more effective

in correcting trace element deficiencies
than soil applications. Trace elements are
frequently tied up by unfavourable soil
condition so that nutrients applied to the
soil are bound before the plant can utilize
them while foliar application bypasses this
problem.Foliar spray can also be used to
alleviate deficiency of major elements.
This is will provide only temporary relief
and should be used only as a quick fix to
minimize yield or quality loss due to a
sudden deficiency. It is not possible to
apply the quantity of the major nutrients
that growing plants require by foliar
applications. Soil applications should
provide over 90% of the quantity of each
major nutrient.
Banding

Banding refers to placement of fertilizer 2
to 3 inches to each side and below the
seed at planting. This technique is risky as
placement too close to the seed or at high
rate can cause fertilizer burn and inhibit
germination.
This method is ideal:
where the amount of fertilizer to apply

is limited;
for widely-spaced crops;
when small labour is required ; and
in seedbed preparation.
Side-dressing
Side-dressing refers to placing the fertilizer
beside the row during the growing season.
This technique is usually used to apply
additional nitrogen during the growing
season and is particularly useful for
applying nitrogen on sandy soils.
Top-dressing
Top-dressing is similar to side-dressing
except that the fertilizer is applied around
the plant. Care must be taken not to apply
the fertilizer too close to the plant as this
can cause fertilizer burn.
Starter Solution Application

Starter solution fertilizers are soluble in
water and they are usually high in
phosphorus. They are applied as liquid
around the plant roots at the time of 
planting. They are primarily used for
vegetable transplants to hasten root
development and establishment. Follow
manufacturer‟s directions for application
rates.
The Advantages and Disadvantages of

Artificial Fertilizers as Compared to Natural
Manures
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of artificial

fertilizers as compared to natural manures
Advantages
1 They contain more nutrients per unit
volume and weight.
2 They are compact and hence easy to

transport, store and apply to the field as
compared to manures which are bulky in
nature.
3 They contain specific quantities of plant

nutrients per unit volume and weight. So
the quantity of a particular nutrient to be
applied to the soil can easily be estimated
to avoid overapplication. For example the
weight of nitrogen in a kilogram of
NH4NO3 can easily be established and
quantified.
4 They dissolve quickly and hence provide

nutrients to plants instantly as they are
added to the soil.
Disadvantages
1 They are used only for one growing
season as they are short-lived. Because
the uptake of the nutrients in the fertilizer 
is very high, no or few nutrients would
have remained in the soil in the next
growing season.
2 Some acidic mineral fertilizers such as

NH4Cl and (NH4)2SO4 contribute to soil
acidity. When these fertilizers are applied
to the soil repeatedly, they can make the
soil acidic and hence not fit for plant
growth.
3 Prolonged use of artificial fertilisers may

lead to deterioration of the soil structure
and poisoning of soil and soil microbes.
4 Extensive use of fertilizers may cause

contamination of drinking water
resources, by especially nitrate fertilizers.
Nitrates dissolved in water are not
removed by normal purification
processes. In the body nitrates may be
converted into nitrosamines. These are
carcinogenic (cancer-causing)
compounds
5 If too much nitrogenous fertilizer is used,

serious pollution can occur. One kind of
pollution is called eutrophication. Excess
of the fertilizer applied finally finds its way
to water. This encourages fast growth and
huge increase in the number of
microscopic, aquatic plants called algae, a
phenomenon called algal bloom.
Proliferation of algae on the water surface
blocks sunlight from reaching the plants
beneath the water. These plants can not
carry out photosynthesis and, therefore,
they die. Bacteria and other decomposers
feed on these dead plants and increase in
number. These decomposers use up all
the oxygen dissolved in the water. Without 
ample supply of oxygen fish and other
organisms living in the water die.
6 They can scorch (burn) and kill crop

plants if not applied under manufacture‟s
directions or even harm humans if not
properly handled.
7 Fertilizers are expensive to purchase and

hence not affordable.
Soil Fertility and Productivity
The Concept of Soil Fertility and Soil

Productivity
Explain the concept of soil fertility and soil productivity
Soil fertility
Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to
supply the essential nutrient elements in
adequate amounts, forms, and proportions
for maximum plant growth.
There are three types of soil fertility. These

are:
Chemical soil fertility: this is the fertility

due to chemical processes that
contribute to soil fertility. The chemical
soil fertility falls under two categories
namely,(i) potential chemical fertility,
due to cations in soil solution; and(ii)
active chemical fertility, which is due to
exchangeable cations adsorbed to the
soil colloidal surface or negatively
charged plant roots.

Physical soil fertility: the fertility
contributed by soil moisture, texture,
structure, temperature, etc.
Biological soil fertility: this is due to

organic matter content, and soil
microorganisms.
Soil productivity
Soil productivity is the capacity or ability of
a particular soil to sustain plant growth
and development. It is measured in terms
of yield of a particular crop which is a
reflection or consequence of nutrients
taken up by plants from the soil. Soil
productivity is an interaction of three main
factors.
1 Soil fertility. This refers to the ability of

the soil to supply the essential plant
nutrients required for maximum plant
growth.
2 Plant factors. These includes yield

potential, root growth characteristic
and genetic make up of a particular
crop plant. This means that some crop
plants are high-yielding than other
plants of the same species and are
thus likely to give more crop yields.
Also plants with good root
development are likely to absorb more
nutrients from the soil, grow better and
give good yield as compared to plants
with poor root development. Genetic
make up of a plant also plays a vital
role in this respect. For example hybrid
maize will always survive harsh146soil
and environment conditions than local 
varieties of maize and, therefore, will
give high yields.
3 Environment factors. These factors

include climatic factors and agronomic
practices.Climatic factors – These are
factors such as temperature,
precipitation (rainfall), radiation,
humidity, altitude, etc.Agronomic
practices include weed control, pest
and disease control, good soil
preparation, plant population, etc. Yield
can be measured in terms of grain
yield, tubers yield, dry matter, height of
plants, number of leaves, number and
size of fruits, berries, etc.
A soil is considered to productive if:
It has adequate water retention

capacity;
It is well aerated; and
It is able to supply adequate amounts

of the nutrients to plant.
Water retention capacity is influenced by

soil organic matter, soil texture (loam, clay,
sand, etc), soil structure, and proportions
of macro and micro pores in the soil.
Aeration is influenced by soil structure and
texture.
Difference betw n Soil Fertility and Soil

Productivity
Differentiate soil fertility form soil productivity

We have learned that soil productivity depends
on soil fertility in one way or another. However,
plant and climatic factors have their roles play
too.
From this point of view, therefore, it is correct

to assert that a fertile soil is not necessarily
productive simply because soil productivity
does not rely singly on the fertility of the soil. It
depends on several other factors such as soil
moisture, which is determined by climate and
even altitude, which influences plant
development a great deal. In concise, it should
be understood that there are several other
factors apart from soil fertility which affects
the productivity of the soil. Even soil
management practices can affect soil
productivity to a large extent. Soil fertility is
accounted for by the type and quantity of the
nutrient elements present in a particular soil
which are available to crop plants.
Soil productivity is a measure of the amount of

harvest or yield that can be obtained from a
given piece of land under certain agronomic
conditions and practices. For example,
suppose a farmer grows maize on one acre of
plot A and manages to harvest 20 bags of
maize. On another one-acre plot, plot B, he
harvests only 10 bags of maize. Of the two
plots, A is said to be more productive than B.
This is one among many means for
determining soil productivity.
The Fact s which Determine Fertility and 

Productivity of e Soil
Explain the factors which determine fertility and productivity
of the soil
A fertile soil provides all essential plant

NURSERY nutrients SECONDARY
PRIMARY in amounts and proportions
SOLVED EXAMS which are
suitable for growth of most plants. Soil fertility

depends on a number of factors, namely:
The texture and structure of the

soil
This affects water and nutrient storage,
and aeration. The soil with a fine texture
such as clay contains small airspaces. The
movement of air in and out of such a soil is
thus minimal. However, these soils have a
great capability of holding water and
nutrients. Its structure can be corrected by
addition of organic matter, such as farm
yard manure and compost, and heap
manure.
On the other hand, soils having a coarse

texture such as sand are quite porous.
Sand allows water to pass through it very
quickly. It is poor at water retention and
nutrient storage. It has wide air spaces and
thus well aerated. It can also be improved
by adding organic manures.
The depth of the soil profile

The deeper the soil the better the plant
root development and the greater the
water and nutrient supply potential it has.
Shallow soils do not normally allow roots
to penetrate deep through the soil. This

leads to poor root development and poor
plant growth.
The mineral and organic matter

NURSERY content
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The chemical composition of the parent

material of the soil provides the natural
inorganic nutrient supply due to minerals
present. A soil formed from the
decomposition of limestone will probably
contain reasonably high concentrations of
Ca2+ ions in their exchangeable sites due
to inherent Ca2+ ions derived from
limestone. The same case can apply to
high contents of nitrogen and phosphorus
in humid soils due to high decomposition
of organic matter. The soil organic matter
helps to cement the soil particles therefore
aiding to create a crumbly structure which
is ideal for most agronomic practices.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

This depends very much on the content of
the soil and soil pH. A soil well supplied
with organic matter has an optimum cation
exchange capacity. The cations adsorbed
to the soil colloids are easily exchanged
with those in the soil solution. Also humus
contains humic (organic) acids which can
donate protons if the pH is low.
Soil pH
This affects nutrient storage and
availability. The availability of N, P, K, S, Ca,
Mg, and Mo decreases with increase in soil

acidity. Below pH 5 and above pH 7, Al3+
and Fe3+ ions form complexes with
soluble phosphates so that the
phosphates are no longer available to
plants. This is called phosphorus fixation.
Below pH 4.8, Al3+ becomes so soluble
that it appears in high concentrations in
the soil solution which are detrimental to
most plants. This aluminium toxicity is a
problem in some tropical soils.
Climate
The climate affects water availability,
temperature, weathering as well as the
physical and chemical properties of the
soil. In humid tropical climates the rate of
weathering and organic matter
decomposition is very high. Soils in wet
tropical and equatorial regions are well
supplied with water because these regions
normally receive sufficient rainfall.
The position of the ground water

table
Water table position affects drainage.
Normally, the lower the water table the wet
is the soil. Such soils have a good content
of moisture and soil microorganisms.
Usually water rises from the bottom to the
upper parts of the soil profile by capillarity
action. The presence of a water table can
be detected by vegetations growing
directly above it, which always remain
greenish even during the dry spell.

The Causes of Loss in Soil Fertility
Explain the causes of loss in soil fertility
NURSERY All factors

PRIMARY that contribute
SECONDARY toEXAMS
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nutrients
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from the soil cause loss in soil fertility. These
factors include:
1 Soil erosion: Most plant nutrients are

contained in top and sub soil. It is these
nutrients that are available to plants for
growth and development. When the top
player of the soil is removed by erosion, the
nutrients in it are lost too. Erosion agents
tend to clear and transport the soil from its
original site to another site far away. By so
doing, the nutrient elements that are
contained in this soil are also carried
together with the soil. This process then
leads to loss of nutrients from the soil and
hence loss in soil fertility.
2 Leaching: This refers to the flushing of

plant nutrients from the top to the lower
layers of the soil and beyond the reach of
plant150roots. This is caused by heavy
rainfall or flood irrigation. The process
makes the nutrients unavailable to plants
as it washes them for beyond the root zone.
3 Monoculture: The cultivation of the same

type of crop on a piece of land year after
year, leads to soil depletion if manures or
fertilizers are not added. Different plants
have specific needs for particular mineral
compounds. If the same type of crop is
grown on as similar field continuously over
a number of years, then the soil will
become deficient of the minerals taken up
by that crop.

4 Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria convert
nitrates of the soil to gaseous nitrogen
which escapes to the atmosphere, thus
depriving the soil of nitrogen. However, this
NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARY
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beneficial bacteria called nitrifying bacteria,

which again convert nitrogen of the air back
to soil nitrates by a process called
nitrification.
5 Nutrient uptake by plants: Growing plants

absorb nutrients from the soil for growth
and development. If the nutrients taken up
by plants are not replaced through adding
manure or inorganic fertilizers, the soil
becomes deficient of these minerals.
6 Volatilization: This refers to the conversion

of ammonium compounds into ammonia
gas. Nitrogenous compounds in the soil are
decomposed by heat into ammonia gas.
Also when nitrogenous fertilizers are added
to highly basic soils, they react with sodium
hydroxide in the soil to release ammonia
gas which simply escapes to the
atmosphere.NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) →
NH3(g) + H2O(l)
7 Accumulation of salts: Under normal

conditions, rain water washes the mineral
salts away, thereby keeping their
concentrations in the soil low. However in
arid and semi arid151regions the salts
accumulate in the soil as the rain falling
there is irregular and is insufficient to wash
away the salts. This, together with the high
evaporation rate and poor drainage, leads
to excessive accumulation of salts on or
below the soil surface.

8 Change in soil pH: Use of acidic fertilizers
over a long period of time can make the soil
acidic. Change in soil pH affects the activity
of soil microorganisms and availability of
NURSERY PRIMARY
someSECONDARY SOLVED
plant nutrients. EXAMS
This, in turn,PAST PAPERS
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the fertility of the soil.
9 Burning of vegetation: Burning crop

residues and vegetation deprives the soil
microorganisms of the organic matter they
require for survival and proliferation. This
affects microbial activities such as nitrogen
fixation and decomposition of organic
matter
The act of burning vegetation also exposes the

soil to erosion agents such water and wind.
The resulting ash also may cause imbalance of
nutrients in the soil or make the soil alkaline.

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NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARY SOLVED EXAMS PAST PAPERS BOOKS OTHERS

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STUDY NOTES FOR

TOPIC 3: SOIL CHEMISTRY Pre-Necta and Mock

NURSERY Soil is formed

chemical substances. Bacteria and plant life Exams, Solving,

water, air and living organisms, especially

Mara Solved Exams |

Form Four | Pre-

The Fact s Inﬂuencing Soil F mation

time,depend to a greater or lesser extent upon

Biology (46) Book Keeping

Parent rock with ﬁne particles is more

Climate is the principal factor

To understand well the inﬂuence of

NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARY

The main effect of temperature

The water in soils includes all

The organisms inﬂuencing the

mammals including man. In fact,

Higher plants (particularly

These include bacteria, fungi,

These include earthworms,

ingesting organic mineral

NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARYCultivation of

production of food and tree

Indiscrimate grazing, casual

This refers to the outline of the

The Concept of Soil Reaction

Explain the concept of soil reaction

Soil reaction refers to how acidic or alkaline a

Nearly all soils have pH values between 4 and

pH is deﬁned as the negative logarithm (to

pH = -log10[H+] where [H+] denotes the

NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARY SOLVED EXAMS PAST PAPERS BOOKS OTHERS

The greater the [H+], the lower the pH and the

Causes of soil acidity

1 Leaching: Heavy rains may leach bases

2 Soil Microorganisms and root

3 Near industrial regions, acid rain (often

4 Acid mineral fertilizers, like ammonium

Also the NH4OH produced by oxidation

5. Nitriﬁcation of ammonium ions by

6. Organic acids produced during the

NURSERY PRIMARY SECONDARY SOLVED EXAMS PAST PAPERS BOOKS OTHERS

For simplicity and easy understanding, the

8. Small amounts of ions such as NO3‾,

The above causes to soil acidity can be

The pH of a Given Soil Sample

Measure the pH of a given soil sample

The pH of a soil can be tested by using Soil pH

Soil pH kit is simple to use and can be used

The following is a quick and accurate way to

You will need a clean trowel and a

Decide where to take the samples

Soil pH can vary in different parts of

2. Collecting the soil samples

Now break up the soil to a depth of about

- Break up the dry sample with the back of