MEG 214 - Slide 3

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MEG 214

ENGINEERING MECHANICS I -
STATICS
- Moments.

- Couples.

- Equivalent Systems.
MOMENT OF A FORCE

It is the turning effect produced by a force, on the


body, on which it acts.

The effect of the force on the rigid body depends


also upon its point of application.

The moment of a force is equal to the product of the


force (F) and the perpendicular distance (d) of the
point, about which the moment is required and the line
of action of the force.
Moment of a Force about a Point

• The moment Mo of a force F about point O is the


vector product:
Mo = r x F = rFsinθn = Fdn
where r = position vector of the pt of
application A of the force F,
θ = angle between vectors r and F,
n = unit vector in the direction of Mo, and
d = rsinθ is the perpendicular distance from O to
the line of action of F
Consider, for example, a rigid slab acted upon by a force F.
The moment of F about a point O chosen in the plane of the
figure is represented by a vector MO perpendicular to that
plane and of magnitude Fd .
In the case of Figure (a) the vector MO points out of the paper,
while in the case of Figure (b), it points into the paper.
As we look at the figure, we observe in the first case that F
tends to rotate the slab anti-clockwise and in the second case
that it tends to rotate the slab clockwise.
Therefore, it is natural to refer to the sense of the moment of F
about O in Figure (a) as anti-clockwise, and in Figure (b) as
clockwise.
Since the moment of a force F acting in the plane of the figure
must be perpendicular to that plane, we need only specify the
magnitude and the sense of the moment of F about O .
This can be done by assigning to the magnitude MO of the
moment a positive or negative sign according to whether the
vector MO points out of or into the paper.
• The magnitude of Moment is a measure of the
tendency of the force F to make the rigid body on
which it acts to rotate about the fixed axis directed
along the Moment (Mo = F x d)
• It is a vector quantity with SI units - Nm and
dimensions ML2T-2
• Moment may be resolved into rectangular
coordinates like other vectors
Example: A uniform wheel of 600 mm diameter,
weighing 5 kN rests against a rigid rectangular block
of 150 mm height as shown in Figure below.
Find the least pull, through the centre of the wheel,
required just to turn the wheel over the corner A of the
block. Also find the reaction on the block. Take all the
surfaces to be smooth.
Solution. Given : Diameter of wheel = 600 mm;
Weight of wheel = 5 kN and height of the block = 150
mm. Least pull required just to turn the wheel over the
corner.
Let P = Least pull required just to turn the wheel in
kN. A little consideration will show that for the least
pull, it must be applied normal to AO. The
system of forces is shown in Fig. 3.9. From the
geometry of the figure, we find that
Now taking moments about A and equating the same,
P × 300 = 5 × 260 = 1300 kNm

Reaction on the block


Let R = Reaction on the block in kN.
Resolving the forces horizontally and equating the
same,
R cos 30° = P sin 30°
RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF THE
MOMENT OF A FORCE
The moment MO about O of a
force F whose components are Fx,
Fy, and Fz and which is applied at a
point A of coordinates x, y, and z.
Observing that the components of
the position vector r are
respectively equal to the
coordinates x, y, and z of the point
A, r = xi + yj + zk, and F = Fxi + Fyj + Fzk
we write MO = r x F (NB: vector product)
MO = Mxi + My j + Mzk
the components Mx, My, and Mz
are defined by the relations

The scalar components Mx, My, and Mz of the moment


MO measure the tendency of the force F to impart to a
rigid body a motion of rotation about the x, y, and z
axes, respectively.
To compute the moment MB about an arbitrary
point B of a force F applied at A, we must replace the
position vector r by a vector drawn from B to A .
This vector is the position vector of A relative to B and
will be denoted by rA/B.
Observing that rA/B can be obtained by subtracting rB
from rA, we write
MB = rA/B x F = (rA - rB) x F
or, using the determinant form,

where xA/B, yA/B, and zA/B denote the components of the


vector rA/B:

In the case of problems involving only two dimensions,


the force F can be assumed to lie in the x-y plane.
Setting zA/B = 0 and Fz = 0, we obtain
Example: A force of 800 N acts on a bracket as
shown. Determine the moment of the force about B.
Moment of a Force about an Axis
Consider a force F acting on a
rigid body and the moment Mo
of that force about O.
Let OL be an axis through O; we
define the moment MOL of F about
OL as the projection OC of the
moment M O onto the axis OL .

Denoting by λ the unit vector along OL. the


expressions obtained for the projection of a vector on
a given axis and for the moment MO of a force F ,
we write
MOL = λ . MO = λ . (r x F)
which shows that the moment MOL of F about the
axis OL is the scalar obtained by forming the mixed
triple product of λ, r, and F.
Expressing MOL in the form of a determinant,
we write

where λx , λy , λz = direction cosines of axis OL


x, y, z = coordinates of point of application
of F
Fx , Fy , Fz = components of force F
The physical significance of the moment MOL of a
force F about a fixed axis OL becomes more apparent
if we resolve F into two rectangular components F1
and F2, with F1 parallel to OL and F2 lying in a plane
P perpendicular to OL.

Resolving r similarly into two


components r1 and r2 and
substituting for F and r into,
we write
Noting that all of the mixed triple products except the last
one are equal to zero, since they involve vectors which are
coplanar when drawn from a common origin,
we have

The vector product r2 x F2 is perpendicular to the plane P and


represents the moment of the component F2 of F about the
point Q where OL intersects P.
Therefore, the scalar MOL , which will be positive if r2 x F2
and OL have the same sense and negative otherwise, measures
the tendency of F2 to make the rigid body rotate about the
fixed axis OL .
Since the other component F1 of F does not tend to make the
body rotate about OL , we conclude that the moment MOL of F
about OL measures the tendency of the force F to impart to
the rigid body a motion of rotation about the fixed axis OL.
It follows from the definition of the moment of a force about
an axis that the moment of F about a coordinate axis is equal
to the component of MO along that axis.

Substituting successively each of the unit vectors i, j, and k for


λ above, we observe that the expressions thus obtained for the
moments of F about the coordinate axes are respectively equal
to the expressions obtained for the components of the moment
MO of F about O:
We observe that just as the components Fx , Fy , and Fz of a
force F acting on a rigid body measure, respectively, the
tendency of F to move the rigid body in the x, y, and z
directions, the moments Mx, My, and Mz of F about the
coordinate axes measure the tendency of F to impart to the
rigid body a motion of rotation about the x, y, and z axes,
respectively.
More generally, the moment of a
force F applied at A about an axis
which does not pass through the
origin is obtained by choosing an
arbitrary point B on the axis and
determining the projection on the
axis BL of the moment MB of F
about B .
We write:

where rA/B = rA - rB represents the vector drawn from B to A.


Expressing MBL in the form of a determinant, we have

It should be noted that the result obtained is independent of


the choice of the point B on the given axis.
Indeed, denoting by MCL the result obtained with a different
point C ,
we have
Example: A cube of side a
is acted upon by a force P as
shown.
Determine the moment of P
(a) about A , (b) about the
edge AB,
(c) about the diagonal AG of
the cube, (d) Using the
result of part c , determine
the perpendicular distance
between AG and FC.
SOLUTION
But, since the vectors λ and rB - rC lie in the same line,
the volume of the parallelepiped having the vectors λ,
rB - rC, and F for sides is zero, as is the mixed triple
product of these three vectors.

The expression obtained for MCL thus reduces to its


first term, which is the expression used earlier to
define MBL.

In addition, it follows that, when computing the


moment of F about the given axis, A can be any point
on the line of action of F.
Couples
• A couple is a pair of forces of the same
magnitude, parallel lines of action and
opposite in direction
• The sum of the components of the two forces
forming a couple in any direction is zero
• The moment of the couple defined as the sum
of the moments of the two forces about any
given point is not zero
• A couple will not translate the body on which
it acts but will tend to rotate it
• The simplest example of a couple is the forces
applied to the key of a lock, while locking or
unlocking it.
• ARM OF A COUPLE
• The perpendicular distance (a), between the
lines of action of the two equal and opposite
parallel forces, is known as arm of the couple
as shown
• The moment of a couple is the product of the
force (i.e., one of the forces of the two equal
and opposite parallel forces) and the arm of
the couple. Mathematically:
• Moment of a couple = P × a
• where P = Magnitude of the force, and
• a = Arm of the couple.
• CLASSIFICATION OF COUPLES
• The couples may be, broadly, classified into the
following two categories, depending upon their
direction, in which the couple tends to rotate the
body, on which it acts :
• 1. Clockwise couple, and
• 2. Anticlockwise couple.
• CLOCKWISE COUPLE
• A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body,
on which it acts, in a clockwise direction, is
known as a clockwise couple as shown in (a)
• ANTICLOCKWISE COUPLE
• A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body,
on which it acts, in an anticlockwise direction, is
known as an anticlockwise couple as shown in
Fig. (b).
CHARACTERISTICS OF A COUPLE
A couple (whether clockwise or anticlockwise) has the
following characteristics :
1. The algebraic sum of the forces, constituting the
couple, is zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces,
constituting the couple, about any point
is the same, and equal to the moment of the couple itself.
3. A couple cannot be balanced by a single force. But it
can be balanced only by a couple of
opposite sense.
4. Any no. of co-planer couples can be reduced to a single
couple, whose magnitude will be equal to the algebraic
sum of the moments of all the couples.
MOMENT OF A COUPLE
Two forces F and -F having the same
magnitude, parallel lines of action, and
opposite sense are said to form a couple’
Clearly, the sum of the components of
the two forces in any direction is zero.
The sum of the moments of the two
forces about a given point, however, is
not zero. While the two forces will not
translate the body on which they act,
they will tend to make it rotate.
Denoting by rA and rB, respectively, the position vectors of
the points of application of F and -F,
we find that the sum of the moments of the two forces about
O is
Setting rA - rB = r , where r is the vector joining the points of
application of the two forces, we conclude that the sum of
the moments of F and 2F about O is represented by the
vector
The vector M is called the moment of the couple; it is a
vector perpendicular to the plane containing the two forces,
and its magnitude is
where d is the perpendicular distance between the lines of
action of F and 2F.
The sense of M is defined by the right-hand rule.
Since the vector r (M = r x F) is independent of the choice
of the origin O of the coordinate axes, we note that the same
result would have been obtained if the moments of F and -F
had been computed about a different point O’.
Thus, the moment M of a couple is a free
vector which can be applied at any point
(Figure).
From the definition of the moment
of a couple, it also follows that two
couples, one consisting of the
forces F1 and -F1 , the other of the
forces F2 and -F2 ( Figure),
will have equal moments if
and if the two couples lie in parallel planes
(or in the same plane) and have the same sense.
Photo: The parallel
upward and downward
forces of equal magnitude
exerted on the arms of the
lug nut wrench are an
example of a couple.
Equivalent Couples
• Two couples which have the same moment
are equivalent couples whether they act in the
same plane or in parallel planes
• Couples with the same moment will have the
same effect on the rigid body on which they
act irrespective of the location of the various
forces that consititute the couple
• A couple vector is a free vector which can be
moved feely in space
Three couples which act successively on the same
rectangular box are shown below.

The only motion a couple can impart to a rigid body is a


rotation.
Since each of the three couples shown has the same moment
M (same direction and same magnitude M = 120 lb.in),
we can expect the three couples to have the same effect on
the box.
Before stating that two systems (or groups) of forces have
the same effect on a rigid body, we should prove that fact on
the basis of the experimental evidence introduced so far.
This evidence consists of the parallelogram law for the
addition of two forces and the principle of transmissibility.
Therefore, we will state that two systems of forces are
equivalent (i.e., they have the same effect on a rigid body) if
we can transform one of them into the other by means of one
or several of the following operations :
(1) replacing two forces acting on the same particle by their
resultant;
(2) resolving a force into two components;
(3) canceling two equal and opposite forces acting on the
same particle;
(4) attaching to the same particle two equal and opposite
forces;
(5) moving a force along its line of action.
Each of these operations is easily justified on the basis of the
parallelogram law or the principle of transmissibility.
Let us now prove that two couples having the same moment
M are equivalent.
First consider two couples contained in the same plane, and
assume that this plane coincides with the plane of the figure
(Figure below).
The first couple consists of the
forces F1 and -F1 of magnitude F1 ,
which are located at a distance d1
from each other (Figure a),
and the second couple consists of the
forces F2 and -F2 of magnitude F2 ,
which are located at a distance d2
from each other (Figure d).
Since the two couples have the same moment M, which is
perpendicular to the plane of the figure, they must have the
same sense (assumed here to be counterclockwise), and the
relation

must be satisfied.
To prove that they are equivalent, we shall show that the first
couple can be transformed into the second by means of the
operations listed above.
Denoting by A, B, C, and D the points of
intersection of the lines of action of the
two couples,

we first slide the forces F1 and -F1 until


they are attached, respectively, at A and B
, as shown in Figure b .
The force F1 is then resolved into a
component P along line AB and a
component Q along AC (Figure c );

Similarly, the force -F1 is


resolved into -P along AB and
-Q along BD.
The forces P and -P have the same magnitude, the same line
of action, and opposite sense; they can be moved along their
common line of action until they are applied at the same
point and may then be canceled.
Thus the couple formed by F1 and -F1 reduces to a couple
consisting of Q and -Q.
We will now show that the forces Q and -Q are respectively
equal to the forces -F2 and F2.
The moment of the couple formed by Q and 2Q can be
obtained by computing the moment of Q about B;
Similarly, the moment of the couple formed by F1 and -F1 is
the moment of F1 about B.
But, by Varignon’s Theorem, the moment of F1 is equal to
the sum of the moments of its components P and Q.
Since the moment of P about B is zero, the moment of the
couple formed by Q and -Q must be equal to the moment of
the couple formed by F1 and -F1.
Recalling,
we write
Thus the forces Q and -Q are respectively equal to the forces
-F2 and F2, and the couple of Figure a is equivalent to the
couple of Figure d.
Next consider two couples contained in parallel planes P1
and P2; we will prove that they are equivalent if they have
the same moment.
In view of the foregoing, we can assume that the couples
consist of forces of the same magnitude F acting along
parallel lines ( Fig. 3.36 a and d ).
We propose to show that the couple contained in plane P1 can
be transformed into the couple contained in plane P2 by
means of the standard operations listed above.
Let us consider the two planes defined
respectively by the lines of action of F1
and -F2 and by those of -F1 and F2
(Figure b).
At a point on their line of intersection we
attach two forces F3 and -F3, respectively
equal to F1 and -F1.

The couple formed by F1 and -F3 can be


replaced by a couple consisting of F3 and
-F2 (Figure c), since both couples clearly
have the same moment and are contained
in the same plane.
Similarly, the couple formed by -F1 and
F3 can be replaced by a couple
consisting of -F3 and F2.
Canceling the two equal and opposite
forces F3 and -F3, we obtain the desired
couple in plane P2 (Figure d).
Thus, we conclude that two couples having the same
moment M are equivalent, whether they are contained in the
same plane or in parallel planes.
The property we have just established is very important for
the correct understanding of the mechanics of rigid bodies.
It indicates that when a couple acts on a rigid body, it does
not matter where the two forces forming the couple act or
what magnitude and direction they have.
The only thing which counts is the moment of the couple
(magnitude and direction).
Couples with the same moment will have the same effect on
the rigid body.
Force-Couple System
• Let the force-couple system be
ΣF = R and ΣM = M
• If R = 0, the system reduces to a single couple called the
resultant couple of the system
• If M = 0, the system reduces to a single force. This is
possible if and only if the vectors R and M are mutually
perpendicular
• This condition is not generally satisfied by forces in space
but will be satified by systems consisting of:
• Concurrent forces
• Coplanar forces
• Parallel forces
REDUCTION OF A SYSTEM OF FORCES TO
ONE FORCE AND ONE COUPLE
Consider a system of forces F1, F2, F3, . . . , acting on a rigid
body at the points A1, A2, A3, . . . , defined by the position
vectors r1, r2, r3, etc. (Figure a).

F1 can be moved from A1 to a given point O if a couple of


moment M1 equal to the moment r1 x F1 of F1 about O is
added to the original system of forces.
Repeating this procedure with F2, F3, . . . , we obtain the
system shown in Figure b, which consists of the original
forces, now acting at O , and the added couple vectors.
Since the forces are now concurrent, they can be added
vectorially and replaced by their resultant R.
Similarly, the couple vectors M1, M2, M3, . . . , can be added
vectorially and replaced by a single couple vector MRO.
Any system of forces, however complex, can thus be reduced
to an equivalent force-couple system acting at a given point
O (Figure c).
We should note that while each of the couple vectors M1,
M2, M3 , . . . , in Figure b is perpendicular to its
corresponding force, the resultant force R and the resultant
couple vector MRO in Figure c will not, in general, be
perpendicular to each other.
The equivalent force-couple system is defined by the equations

which express that the force R is obtained by adding all the


forces of the system, while the moment of the resultant
couple vector MRO, called the moment resultant of the
system, is obtained by adding the moments about O of all the
forces of the system.
Once a given system of forces has been reduced to a force
and a couple at a point O, it can easily be reduced to a force
and a couple at another point O’.
While the resultant force R
will remain unchanged, the
new moment resultant MRO
will be equal to the sum of
MRO and the moment about O’
of the force R attached at O
(Figure).
We have

In practice, the reduction of a given system of forces to a


single force R at O and a couple vector MRO will be carried
out in terms of components.
Resolving each position vector r and each force F of the
system into rectangular components,
we write
Substituting for r and F and factoring out the unit vectors i, j, k,
we obtain R and MRO in the form

The components Rx, Ry, Rz represent, respectively, the sums


of the x, y , and z components of the given forces and
measure the tendency of the system to impart to the rigid
body a motion of translation in the x, y , or z direction.
Similarly, the components MRx, MRy, MRz represent,
respectively, the sum of the moments of the given forces
about the x, y, and z axes and measure the tendency of the
system to impart to the rigid body a motion of rotation about
the x, y, or z axis.
If the magnitude and direction of the force R are desired,
they can be obtained from the components Rx, Ry, Rz.
Similar computations will yield the magnitude and direction
of the couple vector MRO.
Equivalent Systems of Forces

• Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be


reduced to one force and one couple known as force-
couple system at a given point
• Two systems of forces are equivalent if they can be
reduced to the same force-couple system at a given point
• The force-couple system completely characterises the
effect of the given force system on the rigid
bodycharacterizes
Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be reduced
to a force-couple system at a given point O.
This equivalent force-couple system characterizes
completely the effect of the given force system on the rigid
body.
Two systems of forces are equivalent, therefore, if they can
be reduced to the same force-couple system at a given point
O.
Recalling that the force-couple system at O is defined by the
relations (3.52), we state that two systems of forces , F1 , F2
, F3 , . . . , and F9 1 , F9 2 , F9 3 , . . . , which act on the
same rigid body are equivalent if, and only if, the sums of
the forces and the sums of the moments about a given point
O of the forces of the two systems are, respectively, equal.
Expressed mathematically, the necessary and sufficient
conditions for the two systems of forces to be equivalent are

Note that to prove that two systems of forces are equivalent,


the second of the relations (ΣM = ΣM’O) must be established
wrt only one point O.
It will hold, however, wrt any point if the two systems are
equivalent.
Resolving the forces and moments into their rectangular
components, we can express the necessary and sufficient
conditions for the equivalence of two systems of forces
acting on a rigid body as follows:
These equations have a simple physical significance.
They express that two systems of forces are equivalent if they
tend to impart to the rigid body
(1) the same translation in the x, y, and z directions,
respectively, and
(2) the same rotation about the x, y, and z axes, respectively.
Equipollent Systems of Vectors
• Two systems of vectors are equipollent if their
resultants and their moment resultants about an
arbitrary point O are respectively equal
• If two systems of forces acting on a rigid body
are equipollent, they are also equivalent since
they will have the same effect on the rigid body
• If two systems of forces act on a set of
independent particles which do not form a rigid
body are equipollent, they are not equivalent
since they will not have the same effect on the
independent particles
QUIZ QUESTION 1 (5 MINS)
• A square ABCD has forces acting along its
sides as shown in Figure below. Find the values
of P and Q, if the system reduces to a couple.
Also find magnitude of the couple, if the side
of the square is 1 m.
QUIZ QUESTION 2 (5 MINS)
• ABCD is a rectangle, such that AB = CD = a and
BC = DA = b. Forces equal to P act along AD
and CB and forces equal to Q act along AB and
CD respectively.
• Prove that the perpendicular distance between
the resultants of P and Q at A and that of P
and Q at C
Example: A 4.80-m-long beam is subjected to the
forces shown below. Reduce the given system of
forces to (a) an equivalent force-couple system at A,
(b) an equivalent force-couple system at B, (c) a single
force or resultant.
Note . Since the reactions at the supports are not
included in the given system of forces, the given
system will not maintain the beam in equilibrium.
SOLUTION
Example: Two forces of the same magnitude P act on
a cube of side a as shown.
Replace the two forces by an equivalent wrench, and
determine (a) the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force R , (b) the pitch of the wrench, (c) the
point where the axis of the wrench intersects the y-z
plane.

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