Unit 2 Topic 4

Lokman awad 2013/2014

Section 1: Electric Charges
There are two types of electric charge.
1) Positive charges
2) Negative charges

In normal conditions, an atom is uncharged
because the number of electrons(negative
charges) equal to the number of
protons(positive charges)
When a balloon is rubbed against your hair, some of
your hairs electrons are transferred to the balloon.
Thus, the balloon gains a certain amount of negative
charge and become negative while your hair loses
an equal amount of negative charge and hence is left
with a positive charge.

1) Like charges repel ; Unlike charges attract
2) The force (f) between charges is called electrostatic
force

Properties of charged body
Electric Current
The current in the wire is like the water in the pipe . The
amount of water that flows depends on the flow rate and
the time. Its the same with electricity- current is the rate
of flow of charges


Q: charge measured in coulombs(C)
I: current measured in Ampere(A)
One coulomb(C) is defined as the amount of charges
that passes in 1 second when the current is 1ampere
Remember: Convectional current flows from + to -, the
opposite way from electron flow
Q
I
t
A
=
A
Note


Q: electric charge measured in C coulomb
n : number of electrons
e: charge of each electron C

The charge of a single electron is 1.6x10
-19
C
Q = n x e
Example
1) How much charge flows through the filament of an
electric lamp in 1hour when the current in it is
250mA?
2) The electron charge is 1.6x10
-19
C. How many
electrons flow through the filament during this time
Answer:
t=1h = 3600s
I= 250 m A = 250 x 10
-3
A
Q = I x t
Q = 250 x 10
-3
x3600=900 C


-19
19
21

900 1.6 10
900
1.6 10
5.6 10
Q n e
n
n
n electrons

=
=
=

=
Current in series circuits
The current can be measured by connecting an
ammeter in series with the component.
Ammeters have a low resistance so that they do not
affect the current that they are measuring.
In series the current is the same in each
component(rate at which electrons leave any
component must be the same)
Potential Difference
Potential difference (voltage) is the amount of
electrical energy converted into other forms(thermal,
light, mechanical) of energy when unit charge passes
from one point to another


int

arg sin
done
difference
arg passing
electrical energy converted o other forms
Potential difference
Ch e pas g
Work
Potential
Ch e
W
V
Q
=
=
=
The unit for (p.d) is joules per coulomb(J C
-1
)

This unit is called volt. Thus , a p.d of 1V exists b/w
two points in a circuit if 1J of energy is converted
when 1C of charge passes b/w the points
Example
The element of an electric kettle that takes a current
of 12.5A produces 540kJ of thermal energy in three
minutes

a) How much charge passes through the element in
these three minutes

b) What is the potential difference across the ends of
the element
Answer:

a) Q = I x t = 12.5 x 3 x 60 = 2250 C

b)

3
540 10
240
2250
W
V V
Q

= = =
Example
A 12V pump for a fountain in a garden pond can
pump water up to a height of 0.8m at a rate of
4.8liters per minute
1) How much work does the pump do per minute
when raising the water to a height of 0.8m?(l liter
of water has a mass of 1 kg)
2) If the pump if 75% efficient, how much charge
pass through the pump motor in one minute?
3) What current does the motor take when operating
under these conditions
Answer
W= m g h= 4.8 x 9.81 x 0.8 =37.6J








37.6
3.13 ( 100% )
12
2.34
W
V
Q
W
Q C If efficient
V
Q C
=
= = =
=
(2.34)
39.1
60
Q
I mA
t
= = =
Using Voltmeter
The p.d b/w two points is measured by connecting a
voltmeter in parallel with the component






The current through the lamp is (I-i) where (i) is the
current through the voltmeter. In order to keep (i) as small
as possible, voltmeter should have very high resistance
Electromotive force
A cell does work on charges just as pump on water.

Chemical energy is converted to electrical energy in
a cell, so the cell is said to produce an
electromotive force

Electromotive force(emf) of an electrical source is
defined as the energy(chemical, mechanical)
converted to electrical energy when unit charge
passes through the source.
int
. .
arg sin
done
arg passing
energy converted o electrical energy
e m f
Ch e pas g
Work
Ch e
W
Q
c
c
=
=
=





The unit of e.m.f is the same as p.d (J C
-1
) or(V)

Ohms Law
Experiments showed that:
For metals at constant temp. ,the current in the
metal is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it

Any electric component for which the current is
proportional to the voltage is said to be Ohmic

Resistance
The resistance (R) of an electric component is a
measure of its opposition to an electric current flowing
in it.

Resistance is given by the equation:




The unit of resistance is ohm
V
R
I
=
Example
What is the potential difference across a 22k resistor
when the current in it is 50A?

Answer:
V=RI = 22x 10
3
x 50x10
-6
= 1.1V
Note
R=Gradient
1
R
Gradient
=
Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work








The unit for electrical power is watts(W)
W
P
t
QV
P
t
Q
P V I V
t
A
=
A
=
= =
Electrical energy
W
P
t
W P t
W I V t
A
=
A
A = A
A = A
Power dissipated in a resistor
Electric power in electric component is:
P= IV

Ohms law:

Rearrange the equation ; V=RI

P = I
2
R
V
R
I
=
2
V
P
R
=
Example
Show that the electric power as defined by P=IV are
consistent with those for mechanical power, defined
as the rate of doing work
-1
;
Q
I Cs
t
=
-1
; J
W
V s
Q
=
Example
An electric filament lamp is rated at 240V, 60W
When its operating under these conditions, what is:
a) The current in the filament
b) The resistance of the filament
Answer:
0.25A ; 960
Conservation of energy in circuit
V
1
V
2
V
3

Energy converted by battery = energy dissipated in
the 3 resistors

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
Q QV QV QV
V V V
ut
IR IR IR
IR
c
c
c
c
= + +
= + +
= + +
= E
B
Example
The fig shown in previous slide is left on for 2min.
a) Calculate how much electrical energy is converted
in the cell
b) How much energy is dissipated in each resistor

Answer:
Charge flowing: Q= I x t = 2 x 120 = 240 C
Energy converted by cell
240 24 5.76 W Q kJ c = = =
2 2
1
2 2
2
2 2
3
. (2) (2) 120 0.96
. (2) (4) 120 1.92
. (2) (6) 120 2.88
Energy diss in R I Rt kJ
Energy diss in R I Rt kJ
Energy diss in R I Rt kJ
= = =
= = =
= = =
Internal energy
Unfortunately, not all of the chemical energy
converted to electrical energy.

Some of the energy is used to push the charges
though the cell
in other word, its used to overcome the internal
resistance of the cell, which is usually given the
symbol r
Rate of energy
converted in the
cell
=
Rate of work done
against internal
resistance
+
Rate of work done
lightening lamp
2 2
I I r I R
Ir IR
Ir V
V Ir
c
c
c
c
= +
= +
= +
=
An alternative rearrangement of the energy
equation to find the current
I
R r
c
=
+
Example
A torch battery of e.m.f 4.5 V and internal resistance
of 0.435 is connected across a lamp of resistance of
6.4
a) What is the current in the lamp
b) How much power is :
i. Dissipated in the lamp
ii.Wasted in the cell
Answer:
4.5
0.66
6.4 0.4
I
R r
I A
c
=
+
= =
+
For power dissipated in lamp:
P = I
2
R=(0.66)
2
x 6.4 = 2.8W

For power wasted in cell:
P = I
2
r=(0.66)
2
x 0.4 = 0.2W



Example
In the circuit below, the high resistance voltmeter
reads 1.55V when the switch is open and 1.49 when
the switch is closed




1)Explain why:
a) The e.m.f of the cell can be considered to be
1.55V
b) The voltmeter drops when the switch is closed
2) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery
Answer:
a) As the voltmeter has a very high resistance, it
takes virtually no current. Therefore with the switch
is open, there is negligible current across the cell,
so 1.55V can be taken as the e.m.f (open switch
I = 0)
b) When the switch is closed the 10 is brought into
the circuit. This causes a current , I, in the circuit.
So the p.d across the cell drops to

2) r= 0.4

V Ir c =
Finding the e.m.f and internal resistance
of the cell
Fig below shows a standard circuit to find internal
resistance and emf of a cell.



Starting with the variable resistor (rheostat) at its
highest value(to minimize any heating effect)
Record the current in the cell and the potential
difference across the terminals
Rearrange the equation:
V Ir
V Ir
c
c
=
= +
If a graph is plotted, we would expect to get a
straight line of gradient r and intercept e on the
y-axis






In practice, the line may not be straight line
because the internal resistance may not be
constant( for large current)

Example
A typical set of observation is recorded in the table
below



a) Plot a graph of this data
b) Calculate the e.m.f and the internal resistance

Answer:
e.m.f = 1.56V
r= 0.6
I/A 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60
v/V 1.44 1.32 1.20 1.09 1.95 0.84 0.73 0.59
Note
All power supplies have internal resistance, for
example the car battery must have small
resistance(0.01) because the starter motor takes
a very large current about 200A

On the other hand (E.H.T) supply, for safety
reasons has a very high internal
resistance(50M).this limits the current to fraction
of mill-amp.
Example
A 12V car battery has an internal resistance of 0.01

a) What is the p.d across the terminals when the
engine is started if the started motor takes 200A

b) Explain why, if the driver has the headlights on,
they are likely to get dim when he starts up the
engine

c) Calculate how much power the battery delivers to
the starter motor
Answer:
a) 10 V

b) The headlights operate at full brightness when the
p.d is 12 v. if this is reduced to 10V when the
engine is started, the headlight will go dim

c) 2000W
Resistors connected in Series
I
I
I
R
1

R
2
R
3

+ + +
+
+
-
- - -
-
1) The current, I, passing in all the resistors is the
same( the reading of both ammeters are equal)
2) The P.d across each resistor depends on the value
of each resistor, thus V
1
,V
2
& V
3
have different
values. But the sum of all P.ds must equal the total
P.d across the battery



3) The effective resistance of all resistors equals to
their sum,



Note: the series connection increase the effective
resistor thus reduce the current in the circuit
V
t
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3

R
t
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3

Example 1
a) Mark with letter (I) the current drawn from the cell,
and with letter (e) the path of electrons
b) Connect ammeter to the circuit above
c) Calculate the effective resistance
d) Calculate the current in the circuit
e) Calculate the voltage(p.d) across each lamp

Solution
c) R
t
= R
1
+ R
2
= 30 + 60 = 90



d) Using ;


f) Across lamp 1 : V
1
= I x R
1
= 0.1 x 30 = 3 V
Across lamp 2 : V
2
= I x R
2
= 0.1 x 60 = 6 V





9
0.1
90
V
I A
R
= = =
Example
A 7.0 resistor is connected in series with another
resistor and a 4.5 V battery. The current in the circuit
is 0.60 A. Calculate the value of the unknown
resistance.

Resistors connected in
Parallel
I
I
1

I
2

R
1

R
2

+
+
-
-
1) The P.d across each resistor is the same as that of
the battery
2) The total current, I, through the battery is divided
between R
1
& R
2



3) The effective resistance in parallel is:



Note: the parallel connection reduce the effective
resistor thus increase the current in the circuit

I

=I
1
+ I
2

1 2 3
1 1 1 1
t
R R R R
= + +
Example
An 18.0 , 9.00 , and 6.00 resistor are connected
in parallel to an emf source. A current of 4.00 A is in
the 9.00 resistor.
a. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
b. What is the potential difference across the source?
c. Calculate the current in the other resistors.

Example
Find the current flowing in each resistor ?
Solution
a) 6 & 3 are connected in parallel





R
t
= R
1
+ R
t1
= 4+2 = 6

Current in the battery:

2 3
1
2 3
2
t
R R
R
R R
= = O
+
12
2
6
t
V
I A
R
= = =
Current I across 4 & 2 : 2A
Across 4 :
So ; V = R x I = 4 x 2 = 8 V
Across 2 :
V = R x I = 2 x 2 = 4 V
Voltage across 6 & 3 : 4 V
Across 6 : Across 3 :


4
0.67
6
V
I A
R
= = =
4
1.33
3
V
I A
R
= = =
Example
For this circuit(internal resistance is neglected),
calculate:
1) The current in each resistor
2) The power dissipated in each resistor
3) The power developed by the battery
a) The two resistors are (in parallel) so the p.d across
each is the same as the battery, so;




b) We can calculate the power dissipated:

1
1
1
2
2
2
6
3
2
6
2
3
V
I A
R
V
I A
R
= = =
= = =
P
1
= I
2
R
1
=(3)
2
x 2 = 18W

P
2
= I
2
R
2
=(2)
2
x 3 = 12W



c) The power developed by the battery is given by:

P=IV
Where I = I
1
+I
2
= 5A
P = 5x6 = 30W

Power developed by the battery = power
dissipated in the two resistors

Redo the question if the internal resistance of the
battery r=0.8
1 2
1 1 1 1 1
0.83
2 3
1
1.2
0.83
t
R R R
R
= + = + = O
= = O
R
t
= R + r =1.2+0.8 = 2

We can now calculate the current I:



The potential difference across the resistors:

6
3
2
t
I A
R
c
= = =
6 (3 0.8) 3.6
V Ir
V V
c =
= =
Hence:
1
1
1
2
2
2
3.6
1.8
2
3.6
1.2
3
V
I A
R
V
I A
R
= = =
= = =
P
1
= I
2
R
1
=(1.8)
2
x 2 =6.5W

P
2
= I
2
R
2
=(1.2)
2
x 3 = 4.3W

P = 6.5 + 4.3 = 10.8W


The power developed by the battery:



The other 7.2 W is the power wasted in the
battery(the work done per second by charge to
overcome the internal resistance)

P=I
2
r = (3)
2
x 0.8 = 7.2W




3 6 18 P I W c = = =
The Resistance of a Metal Wire ,
R
i. R is directly proportional to the length , L.
ii. R is inversely proportional to cross sectional area
, A.
iii. R depends on the resistivity of the substance, .



The unit of resistivity is ohm m (m)
L
R
A

=
R
R
R R
R R
L A
radius
1
A
1
radius
Temp
0

C


Example
Use the data from the graph below to calculate the
resistivity of nichrome (diameter:0.2743mm)







Answer:1.08x10
-6
m
Length(m)
R
(

)

18.3
1m
I-V relationships
Varying V & I in a circuit
Variable Resistor(Rheostat):
is made of long wire coil and a slider moving on
along a thick bar and touching the wire.
The current enters from terminal A and leaves from
terminal B
Moving the slider away from terminal A (where
current enters) the resistance increase ,and vise
versa


Rheostat can be used to control the current
OR give a continuously variable p.d (in this case
its said to be potential divider)
I-V characteristics for metallic conductor
1) Cut just over a meter length nichrome wire and tape
it to a meter ruler as shown below.
2) Set up a potential divider to provide a variable p.d
and connect a 1m length of the wire to the circuit by
mean of crocodile clips.
3) Set the p.d to its minimum value(rheostat slider
near the negative contact) and switch on
4) Gradually increase the p.d and record the values
of p.d.; V, and current, I, up to maximum potential
difference possible
5) Tabulate your values of V and I.
6) Repeat the experiment but with terminals of the cell
reversed(negative values are displaced on the
meters)

7) Plot your data on (I-V) graph. Note(its conventional
to plot I(on the y-axis) against V(on the x-axis)
Results:



With cell terminal reversed

V/V 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
I/mA 0 28 54 83 108 138 163
V/V 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5 -3
I/mA 0 -26 -56 -81 -110 -136 -165
I-V for a tungsten filament lamp

1) Set up the circuit as shown in the fig. below













2) Set the p.d to its minimum value(rheostat slider
near the negative contact) and switch on
3) Gradually increase the p.d and record the values
of p.d.; V, and current, I, up to maximum potential
difference (12V)
4) Tabulate your values of V and I and switch off.
5) Plot your data on (I-V) graph
6) After at least five minutes have elapsed, reverse the
power supply connections and repeat the
experiment. Add this data to your graph.

Diode
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to
move through it in one direction with far greater
ease than in the other

Semiconductor diode is symbolized as shown

When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit,
the diode will either allow or prevent current through
the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied
voltage
(a) Current flow is
permitted; the diode is
forward biased.
(b) Current flow is
prohibited; the diode is
reversed biased.
I-V characteristic semiconductor
diode
1) Set up the circuit as shown







2) Be carful to observe the polarity of the diode(The
diode is said to be forward biased when
connected this way around)
3) Set a 10 resistor to limit the current in the diode
and prevent it being damaged

4) Switch on and very slowly increase the p.d,
observe what happens to the current when you do
this.

5) Record the values of I and V

6) Reverse the power supply connections so that the
diode is reverse biased and repeat the
experiment

7) Plot your data on I-V graph

Results:



With cell terminal reversed

V/V 0 0.4 0.56 0.64 0.67 0.71 0.73 0.74
I/mA 0 0 1 5 10 20 30 40
V/V 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -1.2 -1.4
I/mA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Example
Explain why the graph shows that the component
obeys Ohms law and calculate the resistance of the
component
Answer:
As the graph is a straight line through the origin, the
current in the component is proportional to the
potential difference
3
6
50
120 10
V
R
I

= = = O

Example
Calculate the resistance of the component in the fig.
below when the current is 80mA
Answer:
This component does not obey ohms law, and its
resistance is not constant, we cannot use the
gradient of the graph.

Simply we use
3
0.8
10
80 10
V
R
I

= = = O

Drift Velocity
For metallic conductors, the charge is carried by
delocalized or free electron .

These electrons are not fixed and free to move
randomly at high speeds around the atomic
lattice,(similar to gas particles in the atmosphere)

When a potential difference is applied across the
conductor, an electric field is set up inside the
conductor.

The force due to that field sets the electrons in
motion, thereby creating a current.

These electrons do not move in straight lines
Instead, they undergo a zigzag pattern due to
collision with metal atoms
Drift velocity is the net(average) velocity of a charge
carrier moving in an electric field
Note:
The drift velocity is much much less than the
electron's actual speed (10
6
ms
-1
)
The current is given by the expression:

I = n q v A
Where:
I: electric current in (A)
n: number of charge carrier per m
3
(m
-3
)
A: cross-sectional area in (m
2
)
v: drift velocity (ms
-1
)
q: charge carried by each charge carrier (C)
Example
A tungsten filament lamp carries a current of
240mA.The diameter of the filament is 0.024 mm and
that for copper connecting leads is 0.8mm
Calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in
a) The filament
b) The connecting lead
You may take the number of free electrons per unit
volume to be 8x10
28
m
-3
for copper and 4x10
28
m
-3
for
tungsten
3
1
28 19 3 2
3
5 1
28 19 3 2
240 10
0.083
(4 10 ) (1.6 10 ) (0.012 10 )
240 10
3.7 10
(8 10 ) (1.6 10 ) (0.4 10 )
I
v
nqA
v ms
v ms
t
t

= =

= =

Metals, Semiconductors and
Insulators
The value n determines the ability of a given material
to conduct electric current

1) Metals have a value of n in the order of 10
28
10
29

m
-3


2) Insulators (glass) have no charge carriers at room
temp.

3) Semiconductors such as germanium(n=10
19
m
-3
)
and silicon(n=10
17
m
-3
) are able to conduct but
not as well as metals
Effect of temp. on Metals
1) Charge is carried through metals by free
electrons in the lattice of positive ions
2) Heating up a metal does not affect how many
electrons there are, but it does make it harder for
them to move about.
3) The ions vibrate more when heated, so the
electrons collide with them more
4) The resistance of metallic conductors goes up
linearly with temp.

In terms of drift velocity equation: I=nAvq
A and q are constant for a given wire.
For metallic conductor. n does not depend on
temp.(n is also constant)
As the temp. rises the drift velocity (v) will be
reduced, so the current will decrease
So the resistance increases with temp.
Effect of temp. an
Semiconductors
In semiconductors, an increase in temp. can
provide extra energy to release more charge
carriers.

This means that n increases with temp.(rapid
increase in n as temp. rises)
A and q are constant
Decrease in drift velocity
The increase in (n) is much more than the decrease
in (v)
The over all effect is that current (I) increases
Resistance will decrease

Quantity Metallic
conductor
Semiconductor
n constant Increase
A Constant Constant
v Decrease Decrease
q Constant Constant
I Decrease Increase
R Increase Decrease
1) Thermistors: As the current (and hence the temp)
increases, the resistance decrease.
R decrease as temp. rises. The rise in temp.
makes more free electrons available to carry the
current.
2) The light Dependent Resistor:(LDR)

Its resistance depends on the brightness of the light,
so its called light Dependent Resistor

(day light) R decrease
(Dark) R increase
Note:
Metals are said to be (PTC) positive temperature
coefficient

Semiconductors: are said to be (NTC) negative
temperature coefficient
Potential
divider(Potentiometer)
12 V battery provides 12 V only. However, we often
wish to use only a part of this voltage, so we use a
potential divider circuit as shown in the following
figures.
B
C
A
R
1
=6
R
2
=18
12V
V
AB

V
BC



V
AB
= IR
1
=0.5 x 6 = 3V
V
BC
= IR
2
=0.5 x 18 = 9V

The network of resistors has
divided the p.d of 12V to 3V
and 9V across both
resistors.
Such an arrangement is
called potential divider

12
0.5
24
V
I A
R
= = =
Example
Calculate the p.d across the 6 resistor in Fig 1.
Calculate the p.d and current across the lamp in Fig
2.

B
C
A
R
1
=12
R
2
=6
7.5V
B
C
A
R
1
=12
R
2
=6
7.5V
6
V=2.5V

I=0.5 A ;
V
BC
= 3x0.5 V

This example shows how adding a load to the
output can affect the output voltage
We can now formulate a general expression for
potential divider by considering this circuit
R
1

R
2

V
V
1

V
2

If no current is taken by the output:

2
2
1 2
2
2 1 2
2
2
1 2
V
I
R
V
I
R R
V V
R R R
R
V V
R R
=
=
+
=
+
=
+
Using thermistor /LDR to control voltage
Applications potentiometers include heat or light
control switches.

If the thermistor or LDR is connected in series with
a resistor, the output voltage across the resistor
can be controlled by temp of light variation.
Example
The resistance of the thermistor is 2K at 20
0
C and
400K at 50
0
C .Calculate the output voltage at each
of the temperatures.

Answer:
1.8V
5.0V