Operators

•A function is something that turns numbers into numbers f  x   sin  kx 

•An operator is something that turns functions into functions
•Example: The derivative operator d
O=
d dx
O f (x ) = f (x ) = d sin (kx) = k cos (kx)
dx dx
•In quantum mechanics, x cannot be the position of a particle
•Particles don’t have a definite position
•Instead, think of x as something you multiply a wave function by to get a new wave
function
•x is an operator, sometimes written as xop or X
xopy (x)= xy (x)
•There are lots of other operators as well, like momentum
 
p k pop 
i x i x
 Expectation Values
•Suppose we know the wave function (x) and we measure x.
What answer will we get?
•We only know probability of getting different values
•Let’s find the average value you get
•Recall |(x)|2 tells you the probability density that it is at x
•We want an expectation value
•It is denoted by x 
x  P  x x
x
 
x     x  xdx    *  x  x  x  dx
2

 
•For any operator, we can similarly get an average measurement

O    *  x  O   x  dx


    x 
p    *  x  pop  x  dx    *  x  dx

i  x
 exp   12 Ax 2 
A
Sample Problem  0  x  4

m
A particle is in the ground state of a harmonic oscillator. A
What is the expectation value of the operators x, x2, and p?
 
x    * x dx  A   e  Ax2
xdx x 0
 
 
x 2
   * x  dx  A   e
2  Ax2 2
x dx x2  1 2 A
 

  A 
p 0
p   *
x
dx   e  Ax2 2
  Ax  e  Ax 2 2
dx
i  i  

Note: x2  x2    n 1

A  n21
if n is even

n  Ax 2
xe dx   2

More on this later  0 if n is odd

  12    ,   32   12 
Note: Always use normalized wave
functions for expectation values!
 The Hamiltonian Operator 2
p
•In classical mechanics, the Hamiltonian is the formula H V  x
for energy in terms of the position x and momentum p 2m
•In quantum, the formula is the same, but x and p are 2

 V  xop 
p
reinterpreted as operators H op

•Schrodinger’s equations rewritten with the 2m

Hamiltonian: E  H 22
  V  xop 
•The expectation value of the Hamiltonian is the 2m x 2

average value you would get if you measure the energy

E H 
i  H
Advanced Physics: t
•The Hamiltonian becomes much more complicated
•More dimensions, Multiple particles, Special Relativity
•But Schrodinger’s Equations in terms of H remain the same
 Sample Problem
A particle is trapped in a 1D infinite
square well 0 < x < L with wave function
  x   5  Lx  x 2 
given at right. If we measure the energy, 30
what is the average value we would get? L

 pop
2
 2 L
d 2
E  H    *   V  x   dx     * 2 dx

  2m  2m 0 dx
L 2 L
30 2 2

5   2   5  
d 15
 Lx  x 2
Lx  x 2
dx   Lx  x 2
 2  dx
2mL 0 dx mL 0
30 2 1 2 1 3 L 30 2 1 3 1 3
5 2
Lx  3 x    2 L 3L  
5 2
 5
mL 0 mL mL2
 2 2
4.935 2
•Compare to ground state: E 2

•Often gives excellent approximations 2mL mL2
 Tricks for Finding Expectation Values
•We often want expectation values of x or x2 or p or p2
•If our wave function is real, p is trivial

  
d d
p   *
i  dx
dx 
i  dx
 dx 
2i 
d
 dx  2
 dx 
2i
 2 


•To find p , we will use integration by parts

2 p  0
2 
  d 2  d
 
d * d 
p 2
     * 2 dx    *
2
 dx 
 i   dx  dx  
dx dx 


d
2

 
2 2
p dx

dx
 Uncertainty
•Recall: x2  x2. Why?
•The difference between these is a measure
of how spread out the wave function is
4 6  46
2
•Define the uncertainty in x: 2 2
 26     25
 x   x  x  2 
2 2
2 2
•We can similarly define the uncertainty in any operator:

 p   p  p  O   O  O
2 2 2 2 2 2

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

 x  p   12
 exp   12 Ax 2 
A
Sample Problem  0  x  4
 m
A particle is in the ground state of a harmonic
A
oscillator. Find the uncertainty in x and p,
and check that it obeys uncertainty principle
•Much of the work was done five slides ago
x  0 x2  1 2 A p  0
•We even found p, but since  is real, it is trivial anyway
•Now work out p2:
d
2

 
 A  2
p2   dx      
2 2 1 2
Ax exp Ax dx
 dx    2 

 2
A 2
A x e 2  Ax2
dx p2  1
2
2
A

•Now get the uncertainties


1 p  p  p
2 2
 A2
x  x  x
2 2

2A
xp  1
2