The document discusses various concepts related to sampling and analyzing qualitative data. It covers topics such as determining the scope and boundaries of a study, sampling frames and elements, guidelines for sample sizes, collecting data through observations, interviews, and field notes, and coding and analyzing qualitative data. Some key points include that qualitative research aims to understand a phenomenon rather than make generalizations, purpose and resources help determine sample size, and coding and various analysis techniques like typology, constant comparison, and content analysis are used to make sense of qualitative data.
The document discusses various concepts related to sampling and analyzing qualitative data. It covers topics such as determining the scope and boundaries of a study, sampling frames and elements, guidelines for sample sizes, collecting data through observations, interviews, and field notes, and coding and analyzing qualitative data. Some key points include that qualitative research aims to understand a phenomenon rather than make generalizations, purpose and resources help determine sample size, and coding and various analysis techniques like typology, constant comparison, and content analysis are used to make sense of qualitative data.
The document discusses various concepts related to sampling and analyzing qualitative data. It covers topics such as determining the scope and boundaries of a study, sampling frames and elements, guidelines for sample sizes, collecting data through observations, interviews, and field notes, and coding and analyzing qualitative data. Some key points include that qualitative research aims to understand a phenomenon rather than make generalizations, purpose and resources help determine sample size, and coding and various analysis techniques like typology, constant comparison, and content analysis are used to make sense of qualitative data.
The document discusses various concepts related to sampling and analyzing qualitative data. It covers topics such as determining the scope and boundaries of a study, sampling frames and elements, guidelines for sample sizes, collecting data through observations, interviews, and field notes, and coding and analyzing qualitative data. Some key points include that qualitative research aims to understand a phenomenon rather than make generalizations, purpose and resources help determine sample size, and coding and various analysis techniques like typology, constant comparison, and content analysis are used to make sense of qualitative data.
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Analyzing Qualitative Data
Sampling in Qualitative Data
Ex. Effect of a health service;
health visits of doctors as follow up to patients already served in a Rural health unit in a particular municipality Ex. Grief process wherein the bereaved undergoes several stages of bereavement The choice of the subject interest sets limit on the scope of the investigation. Boundaries are formed by determining “what is it you want to be able to say about it at the end of the study (Patton 1980, 100) and clarity to the issue is critical to appropriate sampling Sampling frame- target population *population – bigger scope (totality of elements covered by a study) *target population – subject of a bigger population Elements (individual people, beliefs, events, places, artifacts, activity and time) Qualitative: people by age groups, gender, ethnicity, culture, customers, clients, patients, profession and geographic area. Note:
In Qualitative research, the size of
the population is not as important in quantitative research You do not have to come up with a general statement that represents the entire population Size of the sample will depend on what type of study you are pursuing, purpose, time constraints and the available resources Purpose: meet the requirements of the study to answer why, how, what, where and when of the subject subjectively rather than objectively Probability Sample
Peter DePaulo: 2 ways of
selecting samples: (1) based on calculated possibilities and the informal “Rule of Thumb” postulated by some authors. Patton, M.C. (2001)
What sample size will reach
saturation or redundancy? -size of the sample should be large enough to leave you with “nothing to left to learn or at saturation point” *realizing that there are no new concepts emerging How large a sample is needed to represent the variation within target population? -sample size may be determined based on the approach of the study or the data collection method used. If focused groups are desired (getting an n of 30 from three groups with 10 respondents in each Case study – one case or one person Phenemenology – assess 10 people, if you reach saturation prior, you may use fewer Grounded theory/ Ethnography/ Narrative – 20-30 people Collecting Pertinent Data Data is the foundation of any research The integrity of every research project relies highly on the value and veracity of the data used in fulfilling the research objectives and addressing the research question Qualitative: observations, participation, interviews, content analysis and techniques normally associated with qualitative research designs/ approaches/ methods Observation
Taking field notes
Using checklist of important variables Use of audio-video medium (no memory-bias involved) Generic Guidelines
Be descriptive in taking field notes
Gather a variety of information from different perspectives Cross-validate information by gathering other sources like from interviews, program documentation, recordings and photographs Use direct quotations from the participants/ respondents Select key informants wisely Be aware of and sensitive to the different stages of field work Build trust and rapport during the early stage of encounter Stay alert and disciplined during the more routine middle-phase of field work Focus on pulling together a useful synthesis as fieldwork draws to a close Be disciplined and conscientious in taking detailed field notes Be as involved as possible in experiencing the observed setting maintaining an analytical perspective grounded in the purpose of the field work Clearly separate description from interpretation and judgment Provide formative feedback as part of the verification process of fieldwork. Include in your field notes and observation reports of your own experiences, thoughts and feelings. Collecting Data Through Interviews
What is the difference
between a personal interview and a self- administered survey questionnaire ? The instruments are designed differently; the personal interview uses an “Interview Schedule” where an interviewer is required to administer the schedule. The items of inquiry use open-ended questions for the personal interview but not for the self- administered questionnaire Qualitative researchers are concerned with making inference based on perspective, so it is extremely important to get as much data as possible for later analysis *generate participant perspectives about ideas, opinions and experiences; only scaling of opinions or providing scores to measure the degree of agreement or disagreement In personal interview, there is chance for clarification (vague answers from the respondent just as they happen during the interview process which cannot be done through self-administered questionnaire Personal interview does not require the respondent to be literate, which is not so in the self-administered questionnaire in a survey It is more expensive to conduct a personal interview than self- administered questionnaire but it is easier to prepare the research instrument than a self-administered questionnaire Guidelines (Patton, 1987)
Let the purpose of the study guide you in the
interview process Provide a framework within which respondents can express their own understanding in their own terms Understand the different kinds of information one can collect through interviews: behavioral data; opinions, feeling; knowledge; sensory data; and background information Think about and plan how these different kinds of questions can be most appropriately worded for each interview topic (past, present and future questions and the sequencing of questions) Ask truly open-ended questions Ask one question at a time Use probing questions to solicit depth and detail and ask follow-up questions Explain clearly what information is desired Listen attentively and respond appropriately to let the person know he or she is being heard Avoid asking leading questions Understand the difference between a depth interview and an interrogation *Qualitative evaluators conduct depth interviews; police investigators and tax auditors conduct interrogations Establish personal rapport and a sense of mutual respect Maintain neutrality toward the specific content of responses Be observant while interviewing Maintain your composure while conducting the interview Tape recording whenever possible to capture full and exact quotations for analysis and accurate reporting Take note to capture and highlight major points as the interview progresses As soon as possible after the interview, check that all items have appropriate responses; verify recordings for malfunctions; review notes for clarity; elaborate where necessary and record observations. Take whatever steps are appropriate and necessary to gather valid and reliable information Treat the person being interviewed with interest Practice interviewing to develop and hone your skills Enjoy your interview and thank your respondent for his/ her cooperation Coding Qualitative Data
When the data are already
collected, these have to be summarized in understandable and coherent form ready for data analysis. Coding is a process of breaking down sentences and paragraphs to answer the research problem of what, how, where and when and assigning unique codes so that you can summarize those that are alike. Analyzing Qualitative Data Data Analysis
is an exercise engaged in
establishing meaningful patterns concerned with building theory from “bottom- up” style which is actually induction method of analysis Coding
Used to analyze qualitative
data, to discover concepts within the data. Reduce voluminous of data to smaller manageable groupings Organizing data into categories Helps the researcher to make sense of the data especially the result of unstructured interviews and field notes Theme identification is one of the most fundamental tasks in qualitative research (task of discovering themes) *come from reviewing the literature Techniques for discovering themes
An analysis of words
(word repetitions, key- indigenous terms and key-words in contexts) A careful reading of larger blocks of texts An intentional analysis of linguistic features (metaphors, transitions, connections) Physical manipulation of texts (unmarked texts, pawing and cut and sort procedures) Ways of Qualitative Analysis Donald Ratchcliff
Typology – this is a classification
system derived from patterns, themes or other kinds of groups of data. -arts, activities, meanings, participation, relationships, settings Grounded Theory/ Constant Comparison- looks at documents such as field notes, memos; compare codes to find consistencies and differences Analytic Induction – looks at the event and develops a hypothetical statement of what happened Logical Analysis/ Matrix Analysis – outline of generalized causation, logical reasoning process, etc. -flow charts, diagrams are used to pictorially these as well as written descriptions Quasi-statistics – count the number of times something is mentioned in field notes as very rough estimate of frequency. Event Analysis. Microanalysis – is like a frame analysis. It emphasizes on findings precise beginnings and ending of events by finding specific boundaries and things - Film and video Metaphorical Analysis – try on various metaphors and see how well they fit what is observed Domain Analysis – describe social situation and cultural patterns within it, semantic relationships. -interrelate the social situation to cultural meanings Hermeneutical Analysis – making sense of a written text; meaning of text for people in situation Content Analysis – involves looking at documents, texts or speech to see what themes emerge Discourse Analysis – linguistic analysis of ongoing flow of communication -tapes are used so they be played and replayed Semiotics – is a science of signs and symbols, such as body language