Analyzing Qualitative Data

Sampling in Qualitative Data

Ex. Effect of a health service;

health visits of doctors as
follow up to patients already
served in a Rural health unit
in a particular municipality
Ex. Grief process
wherein the bereaved
undergoes several
stages of bereavement
The choice of the subject interest sets
limit on the scope of the investigation.
Boundaries are formed by determining
“what is it you want to be able to say
about it at the end of the study (Patton
1980, 100) and clarity to the issue is
critical to appropriate sampling
Sampling frame- target
population
*population – bigger scope
(totality of elements covered by
a study)
*target population – subject of a
bigger population
Elements (individual people,
beliefs, events, places, artifacts,
activity and time)
Qualitative: people by age groups,
gender, ethnicity, culture,
customers, clients, patients,
profession and geographic area.
 Note:

In Qualitative research, the size of

the population is not as important
in quantitative research
You do not have to come up with
a general statement that
represents the entire population
Size of the sample will depend on what
type of study you are pursuing, purpose,
time constraints and the available
resources
Purpose: meet the requirements of the
study to answer why, how, what, where
and when of the subject subjectively
rather than objectively
 Probability Sample

Peter DePaulo: 2 ways of

selecting samples: (1) based
on calculated possibilities
and the informal “Rule of
Thumb” postulated by some
authors.
 Patton, M.C. (2001)

What sample size will reach

saturation or redundancy?
-size of the sample should be large
enough to leave you with “nothing to
left to learn or at saturation point”
*realizing that there are no new
concepts emerging
How large a sample is needed to
represent the variation within
target population?
-sample size may be determined
based on the approach of the study
or the data collection method used.
If focused groups are
desired (getting an n of
30 from three groups
with 10 respondents in
each
Case study – one case or one
person
Phenemenology – assess 10 people,
if you reach saturation prior, you
may use fewer
Grounded theory/ Ethnography/
Narrative – 20-30 people
Collecting Pertinent Data
Data is the foundation of any
research
The integrity of every research
project relies highly on the value
and veracity of the data used in
fulfilling the research objectives and
addressing the research question
Qualitative: observations,
participation, interviews, content
analysis and techniques normally
associated with qualitative
research designs/ approaches/
methods
 Observation

Taking field notes

Using checklist of important
variables
Use of audio-video medium
(no memory-bias involved)
 Generic Guidelines

Be descriptive in taking field notes

Gather a variety of information from
different perspectives
Cross-validate information by
gathering other sources like from
interviews, program documentation,
recordings and photographs
Use direct quotations from the
participants/ respondents
Select key informants wisely
Be aware of and sensitive to
the different stages of field
work
Build trust and rapport during the
early stage of encounter
Stay alert and disciplined during the
more routine middle-phase of field
work
Focus on pulling together a useful
synthesis as fieldwork draws to a close
Be disciplined and conscientious in taking
detailed field notes
Be as involved as possible in experiencing
the observed setting maintaining an
analytical perspective grounded in the
purpose of the field work
Clearly separate description from
interpretation and judgment
Provide formative feedback as part of
the verification process of fieldwork.
Include in your field notes and
observation reports of your own
experiences, thoughts and feelings.
 Collecting Data Through Interviews

What is the difference

between a personal
interview and a self-
administered survey
questionnaire ?
The instruments are designed
differently; the personal
interview uses an “Interview
Schedule” where an interviewer
is required to administer the
schedule.
The items of inquiry use
open-ended questions for
the personal interview but
not for the self-
administered questionnaire
Qualitative researchers are concerned with
making inference based on perspective, so it
is extremely important to get as much
data as possible for later analysis
*generate participant perspectives about
ideas, opinions and experiences; only scaling
of opinions or providing scores to measure
the degree of agreement or disagreement
In personal interview, there is
chance for clarification (vague
answers from the respondent just
as they happen during the interview
process which cannot be done
through self-administered
questionnaire
Personal interview does
not require the respondent
to be literate, which is not
so in the self-administered
questionnaire in a survey
It is more expensive to conduct
a personal interview than self-
administered questionnaire but
it is easier to prepare the
research instrument than a
self-administered questionnaire
 Guidelines (Patton, 1987)

Let the purpose of the study guide you in the

interview process
Provide a framework within which
respondents can express their own
understanding in their own terms
Understand the different kinds of information
one can collect through interviews: behavioral
data; opinions, feeling; knowledge; sensory
data; and background information
Think about and plan how these
different kinds of questions can be
most appropriately worded for each
interview topic (past, present and
future questions and the sequencing of
questions)
Ask truly open-ended questions
Ask one question at a time
Use probing questions to solicit depth
and detail and ask follow-up questions
Explain clearly what information is
desired
Listen attentively and respond
appropriately to let the person know he
or she is being heard
Avoid asking leading questions
Understand the difference between a
depth interview and an interrogation
*Qualitative evaluators conduct depth
interviews; police investigators and
tax auditors conduct interrogations
Establish personal rapport and a
sense of mutual respect
Maintain neutrality toward the
specific content of responses
Be observant while interviewing
Maintain your composure
while conducting the interview
Tape recording whenever
possible to capture full and
exact quotations for analysis
and accurate reporting
Take note to capture and highlight major
points as the interview progresses
As soon as possible after the interview,
check that all items have appropriate
responses; verify recordings for
malfunctions; review notes for clarity;
elaborate where necessary and record
observations.
Take whatever steps are appropriate and
necessary to gather valid and reliable
information
Treat the person being interviewed with
interest
Practice interviewing to develop and hone your
skills
Enjoy your interview and thank your
respondent for his/ her cooperation
 Coding Qualitative Data

When the data are already

collected, these have to be
summarized in
understandable and coherent
form ready for data analysis.
Coding is a process of breaking
down sentences and paragraphs
to answer the research problem of
what, how, where and when and
assigning unique codes so that
you can summarize those that are
alike.
Analyzing Qualitative Data
 Data Analysis

is an exercise engaged in

establishing meaningful
patterns concerned with
building theory from “bottom-
up” style which is actually
induction method of analysis
 Coding

Used to analyze qualitative

data, to discover concepts
within the data.
Reduce voluminous of data
to smaller manageable
groupings
Organizing data into categories
Helps the researcher to make
sense of the data especially the
result of unstructured
interviews and field notes
Theme identification is one
of the most fundamental tasks
in qualitative research (task of
discovering themes)
*come from reviewing the
literature
 Techniques for discovering themes

An analysis of words

(word repetitions, key-
indigenous terms and
key-words in contexts)
A careful reading of larger
blocks of texts
An intentional analysis of
linguistic features
(metaphors, transitions,
connections)
Physical manipulation
of texts (unmarked
texts, pawing and cut
and sort procedures)
 Ways of
Qualitative
Analysis
 Donald Ratchcliff

Typology – this is a classification

system derived from patterns,
themes or other kinds of groups of
data.
-arts, activities, meanings,
participation, relationships,
settings
Grounded Theory/ Constant
Comparison- looks at
documents such as field
notes, memos; compare
codes to find consistencies
and differences
Analytic Induction –
looks at the event and
develops a hypothetical
statement of what
happened
Logical Analysis/ Matrix Analysis
– outline of generalized causation,
logical reasoning process, etc.
-flow charts, diagrams are used to
pictorially these as well as written
descriptions
Quasi-statistics – count
the number of times
something is mentioned in
field notes as very rough
estimate of frequency.
Event Analysis. Microanalysis – is
like a frame analysis. It emphasizes
on findings precise beginnings and
ending of events by finding specific
boundaries and things
- Film and video
Metaphorical Analysis
– try on various
metaphors and see how
well they fit what is
observed
Domain Analysis – describe
social situation and cultural
patterns within it, semantic
relationships.
-interrelate the social situation
to cultural meanings
Hermeneutical
Analysis – making
sense of a written text;
meaning of text for
people in situation
Content Analysis –
involves looking at
documents, texts or
speech to see what themes
emerge
Discourse Analysis –
linguistic analysis of ongoing
flow of communication
-tapes are used so they be
played and replayed
Semiotics – is a
science of signs and
symbols, such as
body language