ELECTROMAGNETISM

T.A. Otunla (Ph. D)

Department of Physics
University of Ibadan, Nigeria

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Definition
• Electromagnetism describes the relationship between electricity and
magnetism.
• Most of us are familiar with bar magnets or those small magnets that
usually end up on refrigerators. These magnets are known as permanent
magnets.
• Although permanent magnets are very popular, we use and depend on
electromagnets much more in our everyday lives.
• Electromagnetism is essentially the foundation for all of electrical
engineering.
• We use electromagnets to generate electricity, store memory on our
computers, generate pictures on a television screen, diagnose illnesses, and
etc
• Electromagnetism works on the principle that an electric current through a
wire generates a magnetic field.

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Making of Magnets.

• Magnets are made up of poles, there is no monopole

even at atomic level

• Magnetisation methods:
– Electrical methods: by wrap that wire around a metal object
and allow current to flow thru the wire
– Single touch
– Divided touch
• De-magnetisation is possible by
– Electrical methods and must be placed in a E – W direction
– Heating E – W direction

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• Defn: Magnetism is the effect of moving
charges
• Effect: A compass needle fluctuates or deflects
during a thunderstorm or if placed below a wire
carrying current
A magnetic flux is always induced in the space
around a current carrying wire
The direction of deflection of a compass needle
depends on the direction of the electric current
in the wire

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Effects of magnets

•.

Electromagnet Electric motor

Galvano
meter

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 Right hand rule
cork screw
• The direction of the induced magnetic flux
can be determined by the right rule

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Intro.

• If two parallel current carrying wires are near each other, they either
attract(i in the same directn) or repel (i in opposite directn ) each
other depending on the direction of the flow of current in the wire
• The attractive or repulsive force (F) per unit length (L) of wire is
proportional to the products of the currents and inversely proportional
to the distance between them
F i1  i2 i1  i2
 k
l r r

• Where k =0/2, is the permeability of free space. It is the property

of the medium in which the magnetic flux is established
• The relative permeability 
k 
o
m

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Introd…

• Iron, cobalt, nickel and gadolinium have

high relative permeability, km >> 1 –
Ferromagnetic
• Silver, copper and bismuth, km <1-
Diamagnetic
• Most substances including all biological
materials have km = 1 or slightly greater
than 1 - paramagnetic

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Magnetic Field

• Magnetic field is a region where magnetic effects is

felt
• A magnetic force is always perpendicular to both V
and B (F = qBSin θ = qV x B) – B is the magnetic flux
density and is measured in Telsa (T). 1T = 104 Guass
• Magnetic flux is measured in Weber (W)
• Magnetic field strength, H =B/
• For a wire carrying current,I, F = I ℓ B; where I -
nAeV

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 Magnetic field sources
• .

Magnetic fields are produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic

currents in wires, or microscopic currents associated with electrons in atomic
orbits. The magnetic field B is defined in terms of force on moving charge in the
Lorentz force law. The interaction of magnetic field with charge leads to many
practical applications. Magnetic field sources are essentially dipolar in nature,
having a north and south magnetic pole.

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Magnetic field/dipole moment
• If a current loop is placed in a magnetic field, the net force on it
is zero, but the loop experiences a net torque that tend to
rotate it. This produces a torque
• Magnetic dipole moment μ = NIA
• The torque (τ = μ x B) has a lot of application in motor or
metric devices
• The potential energy of magnetic dipole is U = - μ B; i.e. motion
of charged particles in B.
• We can express the dipole moment as the amount of
energy needed to rotating a magnet from the fully
aligned position (with north pole to south pole and
vice-versa) to the orthogonal (normal) orientation .

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Torque in EMR

• Electron Magnetic Resonance (EMR),

sometimes termed Electron Paramagnetic
Resonance (EPR), is the name given to
the magnetic behavior of an electron
immersed in an external magnetic field.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging
for Medical Diagnostics

• Today's medical professionals use a variety of

diagnostic tools to probe the condition of
biological entities. One such technique is that of
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
• The electromagnet interacts with metal objects
on a macroscopic scale whereas the objective of
MRI is to take advantage of interactions on an
atomic scale.

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MRI
• Powerful magnets capable of generating strong, stable,
spatially uniform magnetic fields are used for MRI
• The whole body magnets used in MRI scanners may be
resistive, permanent or superconducting.
- The best MR images are achieved at field strengths
higher than those of resistive and permanent magnets
- Superconductivity is the ability to conduct electrical
current without any resistance
- Superconductors use a wire wrapped cylinder (Solenoid)
to generate the field

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MRI
• When magnetic moments are placed into a magnetic field, a torque causes the moments
to perform a precession motion similar to a spinning top
• The Larmor frequency (fl) is the precession frequency (MHz) of nuclei in a magnetic field
(B), 
fl 
2  B
• The gyromagnetic ratio  is a constant for any nucleus.
• Replacing the Lamor frequency with the angular frequency w gives the Larmor equation to
be written as
  B
• Protons have Larmor frequency of 21 MHz at 0.5 T
• Resonance occurs when the net magnetization vector is perturbed from its equilibrium
orientation.

• Electromagnetic radiation applied at the Larmor frequency and perpendicular to the

external B causes the magnetization vector to rotate out of alignment with the field
towards the plane

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MRI
The patient is first placed in a strong magnetic
field. The paramagnetic atoms become aligned
with the direction of the field. The aligned
hydrogen atoms take on resonance
characteristics; that is, they can absorb energy
and re-emit the energy as electromagnetic
radiation at a specific frequency. A short pulse
of radiofrequency (RF) waves is then sent to
the body. The aligned protons (hydrogen) are
excited and become deflected. Once the RF
pulse is stopped, the protons realign with the
magnetic field while emitting RF waves that are
MRI Safety
measured. The emitted RF waves contain
information on both the physical and chemical -Specific absorption rate
characteristics and spatial distribution of body
-Hearing loss
materials. For instance, an image representing
the density of hydrogen nuclei within the body -Missile effect
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is produced
Charge particles in a Magnetic field

• Particles will move in a circular path at constant

velocity ν, such that:
• Centripetal force equals magnetic force, that is:
m ν2 / r = q ν B
• The period and frequency are independent of
the speed of the particle, i.e. f = 1/T =qB/2∏m
• Particles with the same e/m ratio have the same
period (cyclotron acceleration)

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 Cyclotron

•.
The cyclotron was one of the earliest
types of particle accelerators, and is
still used as the first stage of some
large multi-stage particle
accelerators. It makes use of the
magnetic force on a moving charge
to bend moving charges into a
semicircular path between
accelerations. The applied electric
field accelerates electrons between
the "dees" of the magnetic field
region. The field is reversed at the
cyclotron frequency to accelerate the
electrons back across the gap.

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 A cyclotron

• .

A moving charge in a cyclotron will

move in a circular path under the
influence of a constant magnetic
field. If the time to complete one
orbit is calculated: 19
Cyclotron
• Radionuclide may be produced in cyclotrons
where protons or deuterons are added to stable
nuclides
• Cyclotron produced radionuclides generally
decay by either beta plus process or by electron
capture.
• In nuclear medicine, generators are often used
to produce radionuclides for clinical use.
• Radionuclides produced by generators decay by
beta minus process.

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 Lorentz Force
• When a particle is subject to both E and B
in the same region, total force is called
Lorentz force

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Important Laws in Magnetism

• Biot-Sarvart’s Law
• Amperes Law
• The Faraday’s Law
• The Lenz law

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Ampere’s Law

•.
The magnetic field in space around an electric current is
proportional to the electric current which serves as its source,
just as the electric field in space is proportional to the charge
which serves as its source. Ampere's Law states that the
circulation of B around any closed loop path is equal to the
permeability times the electric current enclosed in the loop.

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 Biot-Savart Law
• .

The relationship
between the magnetic
field contribution and
its source current
element is called the 24
Biot-Savart law
Electromagnetic Induction

• Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause

a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil . No matter how the
change is produced, the voltage will be generated. The change
could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving
a magnet toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out
of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the magnet, etc
• Current production without CONTACT implies the existence of emf
by induction
• Strength of current produced depend on
– number of turns of the coil;
– strength of the magnet; and
– the speed of motion
• Faraday law states that induced emf is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux (Φ = B A).

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 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
Induction
• Faraday's law serves as a succinct summary of the ways a voltage
(or emf) may be generated by a changing magnetic environment.

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 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
Induction
• .

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 Lenz Law
• When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to
Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces
a current whose magnetic field opposes the change which produces it.
• The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep
the magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the examples here, if the B
field is increasing, the induced field acts in opposition to it. If it is
decreasing, the induced field acts in the direction of the applied field to
try to keep it constant.

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Faraday’s and Transformers

• Transformers – When an A.C is passed through a coil,

alternating emf is induced. The magnitude of emf depends on
the relative number of turns
• Coil losses and Iron core losses energy thru Eddy current and
hysteresis
• A transformer is designed so that little energy is lost. To
ensure this
– Low resistance copper coils are used
– Cores are laminated to reduce eddy current losses
– Cores be made of soft magnetic materials
– Core design linearity

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 Faraday’s and Transformers
• A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic
properties of an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It
of course cannot increase power so that if the voltage is raised, the
current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.

The ideal
transformer
neglects losses to
resistive heating in
the primary coil
and assumes ideal
coupling to the
secondary (i.e., no
magnetic losses 30
Magnetic Properties of Matter
• Materials may be classified by their response to externally applied magnetic
fields as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic.
• These magnetic responses differ greatly in strength.

• Diamagnetism is a property of all materials and opposes applied magnetic

fields, but is very weak.

• Paramagnetism, when present, is stronger than diamagnetism and

produces magnetization in the direction of the applied field, and
proportional to the applied field.

• Ferromagnetic effects are very large, producing magnetizations sometimes

orders of magnitude greater than the applied field and as such are much
larger than either diamagnetic or paramagnetic effects

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Magnetic Properties of Matter
• Examples are:
– Ferromagnetic – Fe, Ni, Gd and Dy
– Paramagnetic – Al, Cr, K, My and Na
– Diamagnetic – Co, Bi, C, Ag, Pb, and Zn
– The magnetization of a material is expressed
in terms of density of net magnetic dipole
moments  in the material.
• Magnetic dipole moment and spin angular momentum are used to
distinguish them/magnetic domains

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Thank you

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