First Exams 2025

C1.2 Cell Respiration

Theme: Interaction and
Interdependence
Level of Organisation: Molecules
Combined Content
SL and HL
SL and HL Content
From
IB Guiding Questions the IB

What are the roles of hydrogen and oxygen in the release

of energy in cells?
How is energy distributed and used inside cells?
SL and HL Content

SL & HL Key Terms

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Respiration
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) Aerobic Respiration
Nucleotide Anaerobic Respiration
Metabolism Lactate
Anabolism Gas Exchange
Macromolecules Respirometer
Active Transport Enzyme
Hydrolysis Reaction Substrate
Condensation Reaction
SL and HL Content
From
C1.2.1: ATP as the molecule that distributes the IB

energy within cells

Include the full name of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and that it is a

nucleotide.
Students should appreciate the properties of ATP that make it suitable
for use as the energy currency within cells.
SL and HL Content

Adenosine Triphosphate

ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) is a
nucleotide that
provides the
activation energy
for most chemical
reactions within
cells.
SL and HL Content

Adenosine Triphosphate
ATP is a nucleotide composed
of adenine, ribose and three
phosphates.
There are high energy bonds
between the three phosphates.
The bond between the last two
phosphates is unstable, and
when broken releases energy
which can be used as activation Adenosine Triphosphate
energy for metabolic chemical
reactions.
SL and HL Content

Adenosine Triphosphate

Adenosine Triphosphate
SL and HL Content
From
C1.2.2: Life processes within cells that ATP the IB
supplies with energy

Include active transport across membranes, synthesis of

macromolecules (anabolism), movement of the whole cell or cell
components such as chromosomes.
SL and HL Content

Life Processes and ATP

ATP provides the energy for the chemical reactions needed within cells.
These reactions facilitate the following processes:
● Active transport across membranes
● Anabolism
● Movement of the whole cell
● Movement of components within the cell such as chromosomes
during mitosis and meiosis.

❓ Define active transport and anabolism

SL and HL Content
From
C1.2.3: Energy transfers during the IB

interconversions between ATP and ADP

Students should know that energy is released by hydrolysis of ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and
phosphate, but energy is required to synthesize ATP from ADP and
phosphate.
Students are not required to know the quantity of energy in kilojoules,
but students should appreciate that it is sufficient for many tasks in the
cell.
SL and HL Content

ATP and ADP Conversions

The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP
(Adenosine diphosphate) and an
inorganic phosphate (Pi) releases
energy that is used as activation
energy for metabolic reactions.
Respiration Hydrolysis
The regeneration of ATP from ADP
and Pi by condensation reactions
requires energy.
Cellular respiration provides the
energy for the regeneration of ATP. Conversions between ADP and ATP
SL and HL Content
From
C1.2.4: Cell respiration as a system for the IB

producing ATP within the cell using energy

released from carbon compounds

Students should appreciate that glucose and fatty acids are the principal
substrates for cell respiration but that a wide range of carbon/organic
compounds can be used.
Students should be able to distinguish between the processes of cell
respiration and gas exchange.
SL and HL Content

Cell Respiration
Cell respiration is the controlled release of ATP
energy from organic compounds (food) within cells.
Glucose and fatty acids are the principal substrates
that cells use for respiration, however they can use
other organic molecules. Glucose

Organic molecules are compounds which contain

carbon, but not oxides or carbonates.

❓ Distinguish between gas exchange and

respiration Fatty Acid
SL and HL Content

Gas Exchange
Gas Exchange is the exchange of
carbon dioxide and oxygen in living
cells and tissues.
Gas exchange happens in the alveoli of
the lungs and respiring tissues in
humans. The gases move by diffusion.
Respiration is the controlled release of
ATP energy from organic compounds
(food) within cells.
Gas Exchange in an Alveolus
SL and HL Content
From
C1.2.5: Differences between anaerobic and the IB

aerobic cell respiration in humans

Include which respiratory substrates can be used, whether oxygen is

required, relative yields of ATP, types of waste product and where the
reactions occur in a cell.
Students should be able to write simple word equations for both types
of respiration, with glucose as the substrate.
Students should appreciate that mitochondria are required for aerobic,
but not anaerobic, respiration.
SL and HL Content

Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration in Humans

Aerobic and
anaerobic
respiration happen
in humans.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U4WwWuVZSe4
Read the
linked article on
respiration.
❓ Compare aerobic
and anaerobic
respiration in
humans.
SL and HL Content

Aerobic and Aerobic Respiration in Humans

Respiration is the controlled release of ATP energy from organic
compounds within cells. Humans carry out both aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
● Occur in cells
● Use Glucose as the initial substrate
● Use enzymes to catalyse reaction pathways.
● Produce ATP
SL and HL Content

Aerobic and Aerobic Respiration in Humans

The word equation for aerobic respiration in humans is:

The word equation for anaerobic respiration in humans is:

SL and HL Content

Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration in Humans

Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration include:

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Oxygen Oxygen is required Oxygen is not used
High yield (a net gain of 36
ATP Yield Low yield (a net gain of 2 ATP)
ATP)

Waste product Carbon dioxide and water Lactate

Most of the process occurs in Occurs in the cytoplasm, and
Location
mitochondria not in mitochondria
SL and HL Content

Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration in Humans

Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration include:

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/57e2876055f83cb8642055ae/aerobic-and-a
naerobic-respiration?fromSearch=true&source=
SL and HL Content
From
C1.2.6: Variables affecting the rate of cell the IB

respiration

Application of skills: Students should make measurements allowing for

the determination of the rate of cell respiration.
Students should also be able to calculate the rate of cellular respiration
from raw data that they have generated experimentally or from
secondary data.
SL and HL Content

Measuring Respiration
The chemical equation for aerobic respiration is:

❓ Identify what could be measured to investigate the rate of respiration

in an organism

The rate of respiration can be determined measuring:

● Decrease in oxygen as it is used during respiration.
● Increase in carbon dioxide as it is produced by respiration.
SL and HL Content

Respiration and Respirometers

Respirometers
can be used to
determine the
rate of
respiration.

❓ Explain the
role of the
base (KOH in
the video) in
the
respirometer.
SL and HL Content

Investigating Respiration
Respiration is an enzyme catalysed
reaction.
Do some research on variables
that affect the rate of respiration.
Consider designing an experiment
using invertebrates, germinating
seeds, or yeast.

❓ Identify variables that you

A Simple Respirometer
could investigate for a
respiration experiment.
SL and HL Content

Factors Affecting the Rate of Respiration

Factors that affect the rate of respiration of insects or seeds include:
● Temperature (if using insects, ensure that the insects are not
exposed to temperatures outside of their normal range.
● Mass of respiring organisms

Factors that affect the rate of respiration of yeast include:

● Temperature.
● Mass of yeast
● pH of suspension
● Type of substrate (food source)
● Substrate concentration
● Chemical inhibitors of enzymes (for HL students)
SL and HL Content

Investigating Respiration
There are alternative methods to measuring respiration than using
respirometers.
Do some research to identify other methods for measuring respiration.
Some alternatives include:
● Measuring volume of gas produced by yeast (there are several
methods)
● Measuring the change in oxygen concentration using oxygen probes.
● Measuring the change in carbon dioxide concentration using
carbon dioxide probes.
SL and HL Content

Calculating the Rate of Respiration

The rate of reaction for respiration experiments can be determined by
calculating:

Changes that can be measured include:

● Decrease in oxygen
● Increase in carbon dioxide
 Determining Rates of Reaction from Graphs

The rate of respiration can be

determined from a graph by calculating
the gradient at any point in the graph.

Change
Read the linked article for more
information on determining the rate of
reaction.
The same rationale is applied to
determining the rate of respiration.
Time / s
SL and HL Content

Review and Discuss: SL & HL Key Terms

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Respiration
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) Aerobic Respiration
Nucleotide Anaerobic Respiration
Metabolism Lactate
Anabolism Gas Exchange
Macromolecules Respirometer
Active Transport Enzyme
Hydrolysis Reaction Substrate
Condensation Reaction
SL and HL Content
From
C1.2 Cell Respiration - IB Linking the IB

Questions

In what forms is energy stored in living organisms?

What are the consequences of respiration for ecosystems?
Additional HL
Content
HL Content Only
From
Additional HL Content: the IB
C1.2 Cell Respiration
C1.2.7: Role of NAD as a carrier of hydrogen and oxidation by removal
of hydrogen during cell respiration
C1.2.8: Conversion of glucose to pyruvate by stepwise reactions in
glycolysis with a net yield of ATP and reduced NAD
C1.2.9: Conversion of pyruvate to lactate as a means of regenerating
NAD in anaerobic cell respiration
C1.2.10: Anaerobic cell respiration in yeast and its use in brewing and
baking
HL Content Only
From
Additional HL Content: the IB
C1.2 Cell Respiration
C1.2.11: Oxidation and decarboxylation of pyruvate as a link reaction in
aerobic cell respiration
C1.2.12: Oxidation and decarboxylation of acetyl groups in the Krebs
cycle with a yield of ATP and reduced NAD
C1.2.13: Transfer of energy by reduced NAD to the electron transport
chain in the mitochondrion
HL Content Only
From
Additional HL Content: the IB
C1.2 Cell Respiration
C1.2.14: Generation of a proton gradient by flow of electrons along the
electron transport chain
C1.2.15: Chemiosmosis and the synthesis of ATP in the mitochondrion
C1.2.16: Role of oxygen as terminal electron acceptor in aerobic cell
respiration
C1.2.17: Differences between lipids and carbohydrates as respiratory
substrates
HL Content Only

HL Only Key Terms

Redox Reactions Lactate

Oxidation NAD
Reduction Reduced NAD
Electron Carriers Aerobic Respiration
Glycolysis Anaerobic Respiration
Phosphorylation The Link Reaction
Lysis Decarboxylation
Pyruvate Coenzyme A
HL Content Only

HL Only Key Terms

Krebs Cycle Matrix

Oxaloacetate Protons (H+)
Citrate Proton Gradient
Dehydrogenation Reactions ATP Synthase
Mitochondrion Chemiosmosis
Inner Mitochondrial
Membrane
Cristae
 Cellular Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
includes:
● Glycolysis
● The Link
Reaction
● Krebs Cycle
● Electron
Transport Chain
● Chemiosmosis
Today we will focus on the electron
transport chain.
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.7: Role of NAD as a carrier of hydrogen the IB
and oxidation by removal of hydrogen during
cell respiration

Students should understand that oxidation is a process of electron loss,

so when hydrogen with an electron is removed from a substrate
(dehydrogenation) the substrate has been oxidized.
They should appreciate that redox reactions involve both oxidation and
reduction, and that NAD is reduced when it accepts hydrogen.
HL Content Only

Redox Reactions
Many reactions in the reaction pathways of respiration are redox reactions.
Redox reactions involve oxidation and reduction of substances.
Oxidation and reduction reactions involve:

Oxidation Reduction
Addition of Oxygen Removal of Oxygen
Removal of Hydrogen Addition of Hydrogen
Loss of Electrons Gain of Electrons

Discussion of oxidation and reduction during respiration should focus on

the loss and gain of electrons and hydrogen.
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NAD is an Electron Carrier

NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is an electron carrier that is
reduced during many stages in aerobic respiration.
NAD removes two electrons and hydrogen from substrates at various
stages of respiration.
When NAD gains electrons and hydrogen from a substrate, it forms
reduced NAD. The substrate which has lost electrons and hydrogen to
NAD is oxidized.
Reduced NAD carries electrons and hydrogen to the electron transport
chain, where Reduced NAD becomes oxidised and returns to NAD.
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.8: Conversion of glucose to pyruvate by the IB

stepwise reactions in glycolysis with a net yield

of ATP and reduced NAD

Include phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP formation.

Students are not required to know the names of the intermediates, but
students should know that each step in the pathway is catalysed by a
different enzyme.
HL Content Only

Glycolysis
Glycolysis converts
glucose to pyruvate
In the cytoplasm of
the cell.
Read the
linked article.

❓ Describe the
events of
glycolysis.
HL Content Only
Reduced
NAD
Overview of NAD

Glycolysis
Triose
Pyruvate
Phosphate
2 ATP
2 ADP 2 ATP

Hexose 2 ADP 2 ATP

Glucose
Bisphosphate

Phosphorylation Triose
Pyruvate
Lysis Phosphate
Oxidation
Reduced
ATP Formation NAD NAD
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Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of a 6-carbon glucose molecule into two 3-
carbon pyruvate molecules in the cytoplasm of cells
All reactions in glycolysis are catalysed by specific enzymes.

Glycolysis involves:
Phosphorylation of Glucose: Two ATP molecules are hydrolysed. The two
phosphates, produced by the hydrolysis of ATP, bond to glucose, forming
an unstable 6-carbon compound (Hexose bisphosphate).
Lysis: The unstable 6-carbon compound breaks apart to form two 3-
carbon compounds (Triose phosphates).
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Glycolysis
Two events occur as the 3-carbon compounds are converted to
pyruvate:
Reduction of NAD: NAD is converted to reduced NAD as it takes
electrons and hydrogen from the 3-carbon compound. The 3-carbon
compound is oxidized.
Two molecules of reduced NAD are produced, one from each 3-carbon
compound.
Formation of ATP: As each 3-carbon compound is converted to glucose,
two ATP are produced.
HL Content Only

Summary of Glycolysis
Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Glycolysis produces a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 reduced NAD molecules.

All reactions in the glycolysis pathway are catalysed by different
enzymes.
Glycolysis involves:
● Phosphorylation of glucose
● Lysis
● Reduction of NAD to reduced NAD
● Formation of ATP
Glycolysis is the splitting of glucose into
pyruvate

In Summary:
• Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm
• A hexose sugar (e.g. glucose) is phosphorylated using ATP
• The hexose phosphate is then split into two triose phosphates
• Oxidation occurs removing hydrogen
• The hydrogen is used to reduce NAD to NADH
• Four ATP are produced resulting in a net gain of two ATP
• Two pyruvate molecules are produced at the end of glycolysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysi
HL Content Only

Glycolysis
Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm of the cell.

The sequence of steps in glycolysis have been mixed up arrange them in

order
Phosphorylation of glucose
Formation of ATP

Reduction of NAD to
Lysis reduced NAD
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.9: Conversion of pyruvate to lactate as a the IB

means of regenerating NAD in anaerobic cell

respiration

Regeneration of NAD allows glycolysis to continue, with a net yield of

two ATP molecules per molecule of glucose.
HL Content Only
Regeneration of NAD

Glycolysis requires a constant supply of NAD.

NAD
If oxygen is not present in human cells, then
anaerobic respiration is used to regenerate NAD.
Pyruvate is converted to lactate by oxidizing Reduced
NAD
reduced NAD to NAD.
Reduced

The NAD generated by anaerobic respiration can NAD

be used in glycolysis.
Anaerobic respiration produces a net gain of 2 NAD

ATP molecules, regenerates NAD, and produces

the waste product lactate in humans. Anaerobic Respiration Regenerates NAD
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.10: Anaerobic cell respiration in yeast and the IB

its use in brewing and baking

Students should understand that the pathways of anaerobic respiration

are the same in humans and yeasts apart from the regeneration of NAD
using pyruvate and therefore the final products.
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Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast

Yeast carries out
anaerobic
respiration which
regenerates NAD
when oxygen is in
short supply.
❓ Describe
anaerobic
respiration
(fermentation)
in yeast.
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Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasm of
yeast cells when there is not sufficient oxygen NAD

for aerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration begins with the glycolysis Reduced

of glucose, which produces a net gain of 2 ATP, 2 NAD

pyruvate and 2 reduced NAD molecules. Reduced

NAD

Pyruvate is converted to ethanol and carbon

dioxide, which regenerates NAD.
NAD
The regeneration of NAD allows glycolysis to CO2 Ethanol
continue. Anaerobic Respiration Regenerates NAD
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Anaerobic Respiration

NAD NAD
❓ Compare and
contrast
anaerobic Reduced
NAD
Reduced
NAD
respiration in
Reduced Reduced
humans and NAD NAD

yeast.
NAD NAD

CO2 Ethanol

Anaerobic Respiration Regenerates NAD Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast

HL Content Only
Anaerobic Respiration
Similarities of anaerobic respiration in humans and yeast include:
● Oxygen is not available
● Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
● The first substrate is glucose
● Glycolysis is the first stage and produces:
○ A net gain of 2 ATP
○ 2 pyruvates
○ 2 reduced NAD molecules
● Regenerates NAD from reduced NAD, which allows glycolysis to
continue.
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Anaerobic Respiration
Differences between anaerobic respiration in humans and yeast include:

NAD NAD
The waste products
of anaerobic
respiration for: Reduced Reduced
NAD NAD
● Yeast is ethanol
Reduced Reduced
and carbon NAD NAD

dioxide
● Humans is NAD NAD
lactate CO2 Ethanol

Anaerobic Respiration Regenerates NAD Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast

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Baking and Brewing

Yeast is used in
baking bread and
brewing.
Carbon dioxide
produced by yeast
during anaerobic
respiration causes
bread dough to rise.
Yeast produces
ethanol in the
brewing process.
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.11: Oxidation and decarboxylation of the IB

pyruvate as a link reaction in aerobic cell

respiration
Students should understand that lipids and carbohydrates are
metabolized to form acetyl groups (2C), which are transferred by
coenzyme A to the Krebs cycle.
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The Link Reaction

Pyruvate enters the
mitochondrion, and
enters the link
reaction pathway.
Read the
linked article.

❓ Describe the
link reaction.
HL Content Only

The Link Reaction

Decarboxylation
Reduction of NAD Coenzyme A
Production of Acetyl CO2
Coenzyme A

Acetyl Acetyl
Pyruvate Coenzyme A

NAD Reduced
NAD
HL Content Only

The Link Reaction

Pyruvate from glycolysis enters the matrix of a mitochondrion.
The link reaction involving pyruvate includes:
● Decarboxylation of pyruvate: Pyruvate loses carbon dioxide, which is
released as a waste product of respiration, to produce a 2-carbon
acetyl group.
● Reduction of NAD: Pyruvate is oxidized, as it loses electrons and
hydrogen. NAD is reduced, as it gains electrons and hydrogen.
● Formation of acetyl coenzyme A: The acetyl group combines with
coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A.
The acetyl group is transferred to the Krebs cycle by coenzyme A.
HL Content Only

Lipids and the Link Reaction

Triglycerides can also be respired, but do not go through the process of
glycolysis.
Triglycerides are hydrolysed to fatty acids and glycerol.
Fatty acids enter the mitochondrion, and are converted to multiple acetyl
coenzyme A molecules.
The acetyl coenzyme A molecules produced from fatty acids can enter
the Krebs cycle.
1. Indicate two places where
decarboxylation occurs. (1)

2. Explain why the given places

where selected. (1)
HL Content Only
C1.2.12: Oxidation and decarboxylation of From
the IB
acetyl groups in the Krebs cycle with a yield of
ATP and reduced NAD
Students are required to name only the intermediates citrate (6C) and
oxaloacetate (4C).
Students should appreciate that citrate is produced by transfer of an acetyl
group to oxaloacetate and that oxaloacetate is regenerated by the reactions of
the Krebs cycle, including four oxidations and two decarboxylations.
They should also appreciate that the oxidations are dehydrogenation
reactions.
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.12: Oxidation and decarboxylation of the IB

acetyl groups in the Krebs cycle with a yield of

ATP and reduced NAD
HL Content Only
The Krebs Cycle

Acetyl groups
enter the Krebs
cycle.
Read the
linked article.

❓ Describe the
Krebs cycle
HL Content Only

The Krebs Cycle

Oxaloacetate, a 4-carbon compound,

combines with an acetyl group from
acetyl coenzyme A to form citrate, a
6-carbon compound.

Citrate is converted back to

oxaloacetate through a series of
decarboxylations and oxidation
reactions.

The Krebs Cycle

HL Content Only

The Krebs Cycle

Events that occur during the Krebs cycle include:
Two decarboxylations: Citrate loses carbon dioxide to form a 5-carbon
compound. A 5-carbon compound loses carbon dioxide to form a 4-
carbon compound.
Four Oxidation reactions: Citrate is converted back to oxaloacetate
through a series of enzyme-catalysed reactions. Three intermediate
compounds lose electrons and hydrogen to NAD to form reduced NAD.
One carbon compound is oxidised, and loses electrons and hydrogen to
the electron carrier FAD, producing reduced FAD.
HL Content Only

The Krebs Cycle

The oxidation reactions are dehydrogenation reactions, as compounds
lose hydrogen to NAD and FAD.

Production of ATP: Each turn of the Krebs cycle provides enough energy
to convert ADP and a phosphate to ATP, through a condensation
reaction.
Reduced NAD and reduced FAD bring electrons to the electron transport
chain.
 .

In Summary:
• acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle
• acetyl group (2C) joins a 4C sugar to form a 6C sugar
• oxidative decarboxylation of the 6C sugar to a 5C compound
produces CO2
• oxidative decarboxylation of the 5C compound to a 4C compound
produces CO2
• The process is oxidative as NAD and FAD are reduced by the
addition of hydrogen
• two CO2 are produced per molecule of pyruvate / cycle
• along with three NADH + H+ and one FADH2 per molecule of
pyruvate / cycle
• one ATP is produced by substrate level phosphorylation (from
ADP + Pi) per molecule of pyruvate / cycle
• NADH and FADH2 provide electrons to the electron transport chain
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.13: Transfer of energy by reduced NAD to the IB

the electron transport chain in the

mitochondrion

Energy is transferred when a pair of electrons is passed to the first

carrier in the chain, converting reduced NAD back to NAD.
Students should understand that reduced NAD comes from glycolysis,
the link reaction and the Krebs cycle.
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The Electron Transport Chain

The reduced NAD from glycolysis, the
link reaction and the Krebs cycle
carries electrons to the electron
transport chain in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
Reduced NAD donates electrons to the
first protein in the electron chain. NAD
is regenerated.
Reduced FAD donates electrons to the
second protein in the electron
transport chain. Electron Transport Chain
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.14: Generation of a proton gradient by the IB

flow of electrons along the electron transport

chain

Students are not required to know the names of protein complexes.

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The Electron Transport Chain

Reduced NAD donates
electrons to the first
protein in the electron
transport chain.

❓ Explain how the

electron transport
chain creates a
high concentration
of protons in the
intermembrane
space.
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The Electron Transport Chain

Electron transport chains are present
in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Electrons are passed along the
electron transport chain through a
series of oxidation-reduction reactions.
The movement of electrons provides
the energy for the active transport of
protons (H+) from the mitochondrial
matrix into the intermembrane space.
This creates a high concentration of
protons in the intermembrane space. Electron Transport Chain
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.15: Chemiosmosis and the synthesis of ATP the IB

in the mitochondrion

Students should understand how ATP synthase couples release of energy

from the proton gradient with phosphorylation of ADP.
HL Content Only

Chemiosmosis
The protons that
accumulate in the
intermembrane
space are used to
produce ATP.

❓ Explain how
ATP is
generated
through
chemiosmosis.
HL Content Only

ATP Synthase

The charged protons

cannot pass through
mitochondrial membranes

The inner mitochondrial

membrane contains ATP
synthase, which includes a
proton channel.

Inner Mitochondrial Membrane

HL Content Only

Chemiosmosis
Protons (H+) pass through ATP Synthase
from the high concentration in the
intermembrane space to the low
concentration in the matrix.
This is an example of facilitated diffusion.
The protons moving through ATP synthase
provide the energy to convert ADP and
phosphate to ATP.
Chemiosmosis is the generation of ATP
using kinetic energy as protons move
through ATP synthase. ATP Synthase
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.16: Role of oxygen as terminal electron the IB

acceptor in aerobic cell respiration

Oxygen accepts electrons from the electron transport chain and protons
from the matrix of the mitochondrion, producing metabolic water and
allowing continued flow of electrons along the chain.
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Oxygen as the Terminal Electron Acceptor

Oxygen accepts the

electrons from the
electron transport
chain, and protons
(H+) from the matrix
to produce water.
If oxygen is not
present, the
electron transport
chain does not
function.
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Aerobic Respiration Summary

Aerobic respiration of glucose occurs when oxygen is available as a final
electron acceptor.
Aerobic respiration produces a high yield of ATP (a net gain of up to 36
ATP molecules)
Aerobic respiration includes: Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.
● Glycolysis All other stages occur within a
● The link reaction mitochondrion.
● Krebs cycle
● The electron transport
chain
● Chemiosmosis
 A summary of oxidative phosphorylation (8.2.U8 – 8.2.U10)

• the electron transport chain is situated on the inner mitochondrial

membrane
• hydrogen is transferred to the electron transport chain by hydrogen
carriers, i.e. NADH and FADH2
• The hydrogen carriers release electrons which are transferred
between carriers this releases energy …
• …. which is used to pump H+ ions (from the matrix) across inner
membrane
• H+ ions to accumulate in the inter-membrane space creating a
concentration gradient
• H+ ions return to the matrix through ATP synthase
• Down the electrochemical concentration gradient
• This produces ATP by chemiosmosis
• oxygen is the final electron acceptor for the electron transport chain
• oxygen combines with electrons and H+ ions to produce water

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2508_The_Electron_Transport_Chai
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Respiration Review

Review all stages of

aerobic respiration by
clicking “Start a New
Game” on the linked
Bioman website.

Respiration Interactive Review

 .

Label the
structures:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Animal_mitochondrion_diagram_en.svg
Annotate the labelled fluid containing enzymes 🡺 for
matri
structures: the Krebs cycle and the link
x reaction.
Inter-membrane
Small space 🡺 H+ ions
spaceinto the space
pumped
quickly generate a high
concentration gradient for
chemiosmosis.
Folds in the innner
membrane 🡺 increase crista
surface area available e
for oxidative
phosphorylation

ribosome inner
s
Synthesises membrane
contains the integral
proteins, including proteins that make up
enzymes used in the electron transport
aerobic respiration. chain and ATP
outer synthase 🡺 electron
naked loops of DNA membrane
contains the contents of the transport and
mitochondrion 🡺 enables optimal chemiosmosis
Necessary
conditions for aerobic respiration
mitochondria function,
including protein
synthesis http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Animal_mitochondrion_diagram_en.svg
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Adaptations of Mitochondria
❓ Explain how
mitochondria are
adapted to their
function of aerobic
respiration

You may want to review

section B2.2.4 Adaptations
of mitochondria, from
Topic B2.2 Organelles and Diagram and Electron Micrograph of a Mitochondrion.

Compartmentalization
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Adaptations of Mitochondria
Outer Membrane:
Channels for pyruvate to
Cristae:
enter the mitochondrion
The inner membrane
has many folds, known
as cristae, which
Intermembrane space: increase surface area.
Small space allowing rapid
accumulation of protons

Matrix:
Contains DNA,
Inner Membrane:
ribosomes, and all of
Contains the proteins of
the enzymes involved
the electron transport
in the link reaction
chain and ATP synthase.
Mitochondrion and the Krebs cycle.
HL Content Only

Adaptations of Mitochondria
Outer Membrane: The outer membrane is not permeable to protons
(H+), allowing a high concentration of protons to build up in the
intermembrane space.

The outer membrane contains protein channels, which allows pyruvate

to enter the mitochondrion from the cell’s cytoplasm.
Intermembrane Space: The space between the membranes is small,
allowing the rapid accumulation of protons.
HL Content Only

Adaptations of Mitochondria
Inner Membrane: The inner membrane contains the electron transport
chain which actively transports protons into the intermembrane space.
The inner membrane also contains proton channels and ATP synthase.
Protons travel through the channels, providing the energy for ATP
synthase to convert ADP and Pi to ATP.
Cristae: The inner membrane is highly folded into cristae. The cristae
increase the surface area of the inner membrane.
Chromosome: Mitochondria have a single circular chromosome. The
chromosomes contain the genetic information for making all of the
proteins, including enzymes, involved in aerobic respiration.
HL Content Only

Adaptations of Mitochondria
70 S Ribosomes: Synthesize the proteins required for aerobic
respiration.

Matrix: Contains the enzymes and metabolites required for the link
reaction and Krebs cycle.
HL Content Only
From
C1.2.17: Differences between lipids and the IB

carbohydrates as respiratory substrates

Include the higher yield of energy per gram of lipids, due to less oxygen
and more oxidizable hydrogen and carbon.
Also include glycolysis and anaerobic respiration occurring only if
carbohydrate is the substrate, with 2C acetyl groups from the
breakdown of fatty acids entering the pathway via acetyl-CoA (acetyl
coenzyme A).
HL Content Only

Respiration of Lipids and Carbohydrates

Lipids and carbohydrates can be respired.
Fatty acids and carbohydrates, such as glucose, can be used to produce
acetyl coenzyme A, which enters the Krebs cycle.

Differences between the respiration of lipids and carbohydrates include:

● Lipids produce a much higher yield of ATP, as lipids have less oxygen
and more oxidizable hydrogen and carbon (more 2-carbon acetyl
groups can be formed).
● Glycolysis and anaerobic respiration only occur with the respiration of
carbohydrates, and not with lipids.
HL Content Only

HL Only Key Terms

Redox Reactions Lactate

Oxidation NAD
Reduction Reduced NAD
Electron Carriers Aerobic Respiration
Glycolysis Anaerobic Respiration
Phosphorylation The Link Reaction
Lysis Decarboxylation
Pyruvate Coenzyme A
HL Content Only

HL Only Key Terms

Krebs Cycle Matrix

Oxaloacetate Protons (H+)
Citrate Proton Gradient
Dehydrogenation Reactions ATP Synthase
Mitochondrion Chemiosmosis
Inner Mitochondrial
Membrane
Cristae
SL and HL Content
From
C1.2 Cell Respiration - IB Linking the IB

Questions

What are examples of structure–function relationships in biological

macromolecules?
What biological processes depend on differences or changes in
concentration?
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