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A.
2 Forces and Momentum
Essential idea: Classical physics requires a force to change a state of motion, as suggested by Newton in his laws of motion.
Nature of science: (1) Using mathematics: Isaac Newton
provided the basis for much of our understanding of forces and motion by formalizing the previous work of scientists through the application of mathematics by inventing calculus to assist with this. (2) Intuition: The tale of the falling apple describes simply one of the many flashes of intuition that went into the publication of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687. Understandings:
• Newton’s three laws of motion
• forces as interactions between bodies • that forces acting on a body can be represented in a free-body diagram • that free-body diagrams can be analysed to find the resultant force on a system the nature and use of the following contact forces
• normal force FN is the component of the contact force acting perpendicular
to the surface that counteracts the body • surface frictional force Ff acting in a direction parallel to the plane of contact between a body and a surface, on a stationary body as given by Ff ≤ μsFN or a body in motion as given by Ff = μd where μs and μd are the coefficients of static and dynamic friction respectively • tension • elastic restoring force FH following Hooke’s law as given by FH = –kx where k is the spring constant • viscous drag force Fd acting on a small sphere opposing its motion through a fluid as given by Fd = 6πηrv where η is the fluid viscosity, r is the radius of the sphere and v is the velocity of the sphere through the fluid • buoyancy Fb acting on a body due to the displacement of the fluid as given by Fb = ρVg where V is the volume of fluid displaced the nature and use of the following field forces: • gravitational force Fg is the weight of the body and calculated is given by Fg = mg • electric force Fe • magnetic force Fm
• that linear momentum as given by p = mv remains constant unless the
system is acted upon by a resultant external force • that a resultant external force applied to a system constitutes an impulse J as given by J = FΔt where F is the average resultant force and Δt is the time of contact • that the applied external impulse equals the change in momentum of the system • that Newton’s second law in the form F = ma assumes mass is constant whereas F = ΔpΔt allows for situations where mass is changing • the elastic and inelastic collisions of two bodies • explosions • energy considerations in elastic collisions, inelastic collisions, and explosions • that bodies moving along a circular trajectory at a constant speed experience an acceleration that is directed radially towards the centre of the circle—known as a centripetal acceleration as given by
• that circular motion is caused by a centripetal force acting perpendicular to
the velocity • that a centripetal force causes the body to change direction even if its magnitude of velocity may remain constant • that the motion along a circular trajectory can be described in terms of the angular velocity ω which is related to the linear speed v by the equation as given by Guidance:
• Sketches and interpretations of free-body diagrams and a determination of
the resultant force are for one and two-dimensional situations only. • Forces should be labelled using commonly accepted names or symbols. • Newton’s first law will be applied to problems involving translational equilibrium. • Examples of Newton’s third law will include the identification of force pairs in various situations. • The use of simultaneous equations involving conservation of momentum and energy in collisions is not required. • A quantitative approach to collisions and explosions is for one-dimensional situations for standard level students and for two-dimensional situations for higher level students. • Situations should involve both uniform and non-uniform circular motion in both horizontal and vertical planes. • Analysis of forces on bodies in non-uniform circular motion in a vertical plane at points other than the top or bottom is not required. • Quantitative treatment of problems involving banked surfaces is not required. Linking Questions
• How do collisions between charge carriers and the atomic cores of a
conductor result in thermal energy transfer? • How can knowledge of electrical and magnetic forces allow the prediction of changes to the motion of charged particles? • How does the application of a restoring force act on a particle result in simple harmonic motion? • How are concepts of equilibrium and conservation applied to understand matter and motion from the smallest atom to the whole universe? • Why is no work done on a body moving along a circular trajectory? • In which way is conservation of momentum relevant to the workings of a nuclear power station? • If experimental measurements contain uncertainties, how can laws be developed based on experimental evidence? (NOS) • What assumptions about the forces between molecules of gas allow for ideal gas behaviour? (NOS)