Editor: Universidad de Granada.

Tesis Doctorales
Autora: Alba Moya Garófano
ISBN: 978-84-9125-840-7
URI: http://hdl.handle.net/10481/43577
 Tesis Doctoral

COSIFICACIÓN DE LAS MUJERES:

ANÁLISIS DE LAS CONSECUENCIAS PSICOSOCIALES

DE LOS PIROPOS

Women’s Objectification:

Analyzing the psychosocial consequences of piropos

Alba Moya Garófano

Directores:

Jesús López Megías

Rosa Rodríguez Bailón

Granada, Febrero 2016

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
La portada de la tesis ha sido realizada por Javier Morales
!

El! presente! trabajo! de! investigación! ha! sido! financiado! a! través! del!

programa! de! Formación! de! Profesorado! Universitario! (FPU;! Ministerio!

de!Educación,!Cultura!y!Deporte,!Gobierno!de!España),!al!que!ha!estado!

vinculada!la!doctoranda!desde!Diciembre!de!2011!hasta!Noviembre!de!

2015!(Ref.!AP2010O3622)
!
La!doctoranda!Alba!Moya!Garófano!y!los!directores!de!la!tesis!Jesús!López!
Megías! y! Rosa! Rodríguez! Bailón! garantizamos,! al! firmar! esta! tesis!
doctoral,! que! el! trabajo! ha! sido! realizado! por! la! doctoranda! bajo! la!
dirección!de!los!directores!de!la!tesis!y!hasta!donde!nuestro!conocimiento!
alcanza,! en! la! realización! del! trabajo,! se! han! respetado! los! derechos! de!
otros! autores! a! ser! citados,! cuando! se! han! utilizado! sus! resultados! o!
publicaciones.!!!
!

Granada,!11!de!Enero!de!2016!

Directores!!de!la!Tesis!! ! ! Doctoranda! ! !

Fdo.:!Jesús!López!Megías!

Fdo.:!Rosa!Rodríguez!Bailón! ! ! Fdo.:!Alba!Moya!Garófano!

!
 !

!
 !

!
!
!

Agradecimientos
Acknowledgments
!

!
 !

No sucede nada, no temas.

Sólo es el tiempo.
Nos ha pasado
como una exhalación
y hemos tenido que arrimarnos un
poco
al arcén. Pero
ya contábamos con eso.
Mira, la noche (allí enfrente,
esperando) aun está lejos.
Ven,
Salgamos fuera.
Todavía
nos queda mucho
atardecer.
(Karmelo C. Iribarren)
!

!
!

Es! así.! Parpadeas! y! el! tiempo! ha! pasado.! Casi! sin! darte! cuenta,! ya! van!
cuatro!años.!!
TicOtac.!
!
Nacen!estas!líneas!de!noche!y!con!cierto!cansancio,!pero!con!la!inmensa!
alegría! de! saber! que! de! todas! las! palabras! escritas! a! lo! largo! de! esta!
tesis,!las!últimas!son!para!daros!las!gracias.!
!
! En!primer!lugar,!a!mis!tutores,!Jesús!y!Rosa.!Gracias!por!vuestros!
años! de! dedicación,! por! vuestra! paciencia! y! por! regalarme! vuestro!
tiempo! y! calidad! humana.! Jesús,! son! ya! más! de! diez! años!
emocionándome.!Gracias!Rosa,!porque!no!han!dejado!de!sorprenderme!
tu! vitalidad! y! tu! fuerza! constantes! pese! a! tus! numerosas!
responsabilidades.!!
Para!mí!constituís!ambos!indudables!ejemplos!de!lo!que!debería!
ser! la! academia.! Es! mucho! lo! aprendido! de! vosotros! en! todo! este!
tiempo,!gracias!sinceras!por!haber!querido!enseñarme.!!
!
No! puedo! dejar! de! agradecer! a! mi! grupo! de! investigación,! por!
todo!lo!que!me!ha!aportado!a!lo!largo!de!los!años,!por!el!interés!de!cada!
una! de! las! personas! que! lo! componen! en! tan! apasionantes! y! distintas!
temáticas,!y!fundamentalmente,!por!lo!que!nos!une,!la!inquietud!por!lo!
social.!
!
Gracias!a!todas!las!personas!que!prestaron!su!tiempo!a!colaborar!
en! nuestras! investigaciones,! a! cambio! de! nada! o! de! muy! poco.! Sin!
vosotros/as! sí! que! hubiera! sido! imposible.! Puede! que! algún! día! Lucía!
pueda! caminar! tranquila! por! la! calle.! Ojalá! que! lo! aprendido! en! este!
tiempo!pueda!ayudar,!aunque!sea!un!poquito,!a!que!así!sea.!
!
También!me!siento!agradecida!por!lo!arropada!que!he!estado!en!
cada! una! de! mis! estancias! de! investigación.! Ámsterdam,! Exeter! y!
Canterbury!tendrán!para!siempre!un!lugar!importante!en!mi!memoria.!
!I! also! feel! grateful! for! all! the! wonderful! people! who! made! me!
feel! at! home! during! my! research! stays.! Amsterdam,! Exeter! and!
Canterbury!will!always!have!a!special!place!in!my!heart!and!memory.!!!
!
! Thanks!to!all!the!members!of!the!committee!too,!as!well!as!the!
two!external!evaluators,!who!kindly!accepted!to!revise!my!work.!!
!
!

Ha! sido! mucho! lo! aprendido! y! lo! vivido! a! lo! largo! de! mis! años! de!
doctorado.!En!ellos,!he!tenido!la!suerte!de!contar!en!lo!personal!con!el!
gran!apoyo!de!tantas!personas!que,!probablemente,!todo!lo!que!pueda!
decir!se!quede!corto.!Lo!intentaré.!
!
! Gracias! a! Katerina,! porque! me! maravillan! sus! grandes! ojos! con!
los! que! mira! el! mundo! y! se! cuestiona! las! cosas! que! no! pueden! estar!
bien.! Y! a! AnaOU,! por! tantos! años! levantando! la! vista! y! encontrándome!
con!su!sonrisa.!!
¡Qué!privilegio!haber!podido!llegar!hasta!aquí!en!vuestra!compañía!!
!
! Mis! agradecimientos! se! quedan! pequeños! si! de! ti! se! trata,! mi!
querida!Mónica.!Gracias!por!encontrarme,!chica!de!la!gasolinera.!
!Eres!sin!duda!la!casualidad!más!bonita!que!me!trajo!esta!tesis!doctoral.!
!
A! Hugo,! simplemente! gracias! por! ser! un! tipo! hermosamente!
difícil.!
!
Gracias!a!Rocío!y!a!Lili,!inadaptadas!como!yo.!Y!a!Gloria,!porque!
aunque! se! encuentre! lejos,! cada! puesta! de! sol! sigue! llevando! su!
nombre.! También! gracias! a! ti! Antonella,! que! llegaste! para! darle! un!
nuevo!significado!a!las!galletas!de!limón.!
!
Unas! gracias! muy! especiales! son! para! ti,! Natalia.! Por!
acompañarme!siempre!y!funcionar!cuando!todo!me!sabe!a!error.!Por!tu!
sensibilidad!y!por!recordarme!cuál!es!nuestra!coartada.!Por!vestirte!de!
verde! tantas! veces.! Por! dejarme! ser! luz! y,! sobre! todo,! por! no! fingir! la!
vida.!
!
También!tengo!que!agradecer!haberte!conocido,!Ana!Efe.!!
Simulabas! ser! tortuga! pero! en! realidad! resulta! que! eres! una! increíble!
suricata!cuidadora.!!
!
Jaime,!amigo!mío,!gracias!por!ser!un!idealista!(sin!ínfulas),!y,!por!
encima!de!todo,!por!tu!gran!coraçao.!
!
! A!Esperanza,!porque!desde!que!la!conocí!no!he!dejado!de!pensar!
en!que!sus!padres!no!pudieron!elegir!un!mejor!nombre!para!ella.!
!
 !

! Y!gracias!a!ti,!Javi!(Lente),!por!dedicarme!tu!tiempo!y!tu!talento.!
Nadie!mejor!que!tú!para!ilustrar!todo!lo!que!yo!quería!decir.!!
!
Gracias!Rafa,!por!llenarme!la!vida!de!metáforas.!
!
! A! todas! mis! amigas! y! amigos,! los! de! siempre! y! los! que! llegaron!
hace! menos! y! lo! hicieron! para! quedarse.! Personas! que! me! llenan! y!
aportan!mucho!a!mi!vida,!estando!unas!más!cerca!y!otras!repartidas!por!
lo!ancho!y!largo!de!este!mundo.!Gente!de!buena!calidad.!
!
!! Gracias!por!todo!el!amor!que!tuve!siempre!en!casa.!A!mi!madre,!
por! su! ternura! infinita.! A! mi! padre,! por! su! nobleza! con! la! que! me!
deslumbra! a! diario.! A! ambos,! por! regalarme! buenos! valores,! y! a! mi!
hermano,! porque,! for! you,! there’s! nothing! in! this! world! I! wouldn’t! do.!
Gracias! por! no! dudar! nunca! de! que! yo! podía! hacer! esto! bien.! Por!
recordármelo.!!
Me!gusta!mi!vida!y!que!vosotros!estéis!en!ella.!
!
!
En!definitiva,!gracias!a!todos!los!gajos!de!la!naranja.!
A!mi!suerte,!que!es!mucha,!de!contar!con!cada!uno!de!ellos.!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!

A mi padre,

mi mejor compañero en este viaje a Ítaca.

!

!
!

Índice de contenidos
Table of contents
!

!
 !

Resumen ................................................................ 21

Overview ................................................................ 27

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION (written in spanish) ...... 35

1. Cosificación .............................................................................. 37

1. 2. Consecuencias de la Auto-cosificación ............................ 43

1. 3. Aproximaciones al Estudio de la Cosificación y la Auto-

cosificación ............................................................................... 45

1. 4. Auto-cosificación Rasgo y Estado .................................... 46

1. 5. Ejemplos Cotidianos de Cosificación de la Mujer: Street

Harassment ............................................................................... 48

2. El Piropo ................................................................................... 51

2. 1. Definición ......................................................................... 51

2. 3. El Piropo en la Actualidad ................................................ 53

2. 4. El Piropo desde la Lingüística .......................................... 55

2. 5. Reacciones ante Distintos Tipos de Piropos .................... 59

3. Nuestro Tabajo: Piropos y Cosificación ................................... 60

Referencias ................................................................................... 64

EMPIRICAL STUDIES ................................................ 77

CHAPTER 2: SPANISH VERSION OF THE OBCS: A SELF-

OBJECTIFICATION MEASURE (Written in spanish) ..... 79

Abstract ........................................................................................ 82

Resumen ...................................................................................... 83

Estudio 1 ...................................................................................... 88

Método ..................................................................................... 90

Resultados ................................................................................ 94
!

Discusión ................................................................................ 100

Estudio 2 .................................................................................... 101

Método................................................................................... 102

Resultados .............................................................................. 104

Discusión ................................................................................ 108

Discusión General ...................................................................... 108

Referencias ................................................................................. 111

APÉNDICE ................................................................................. 116

CHAPTER 3: REACTIONS TO OBJECTIFYING

BEHAVIORS (‘PIROPOS’) ........................................ 119

Abstract ...................................................................................... 122

Introduction. .............................................................................. 123

Study 1 ....................................................................................... 130

Method ................................................................................... 130

Results .................................................................................... 131

Discussion............................................................................... 134

Study 2 ....................................................................................... 135

Method ................................................................................... 139

Results .................................................................................... 144

Discussion............................................................................... 147

Study 3 ....................................................................................... 149

Method ................................................................................... 149

Results and discussion ............................................................ 150

Overall discussion ...................................................................... 151

 !

References.................................................................................. 156

APPENDIX .................................................................................. 163

CHAPTER 4: THE MODERATING ROLE OF SELF-

OBJECTIFICATION IN WOMEN’S REACTIONS TO

OBJECTIFYING BEHAVIORS (‘PIROPOS’) ................. 169

Abstract ...................................................................................... 172

Introduction. ............................................................................... 173

Method ...................................................................................... 190

Results ........................................................................................ 195

Discussion .................................................................................. 202

References.................................................................................. 208

CHAPTER 5: HOW WOMEN’S REACTIONS TO PIROPOS

AFFECT THE WAY THEY ARE PERCEIVED BY OTHERS

........................................................................... 221

Abstract ...................................................................................... 224

Introduction ................................................................................ 225

Study 1 ....................................................................................... 236

Method ................................................................................... 237

Results .................................................................................... 242

Discussion ............................................................................... 244

Study 2 ....................................................................................... 246

Method ................................................................................... 246

Results .................................................................................... 248

Discussion ............................................................................... 249

!

References ................................................................................. 257

CHAPTER 6:

CONCLUSIONS ..................................................... 267

References ................................................................................. 278

 !

RESUMEN
 !

!
 23!

La! cosificación! sexual! ocurre! cuando! una! persona! es! tratada!

como!un!simple!cuerpo!que!existe!para!el!uso!y!el!placer!de!los!demás!

(Bartky! 1990;! Nussbaum,! 1999).! Según! la! teoría! de! la! cosificación!

(Fredrickson!y!Roberts,!1997),!esta!experiencia!de!ser!tratada!como!un!

cuerpo! ocurre! a! las! niñas! y! las! mujeres! con! más! frecuencia! que! a! los!

hombres,! y! puede! resultar! en! lo! que! se! ha! llamado! autoOcosificación,!

(selfOobjectification).! La! autoOcosificación! se! da! cuando! la! persona!

internaliza!una!visión!de!sí!misma!como!un!objeto!o!conjunto!de!partes!

del!cuerpo.!La!investigación!realizada!desde!la!formulación!de!la!teoría!

ha! demostrado! que! ser! cosificadas! tiene! importantes! consecuencias!

negativas! para! las! mujeres! (para! una! revisión,! véase! por! ejemplo!

Calogero,!TantleffODunn!y!Thompson,!2011).!

La! cosificación! sexual! comprende! una! amplia! gama! de!

comportamientos,!como!"mirar!fijamente!o!con!lascivia!a!los!cuerpos!de!

las!mujeres,!hacer!comentarios!sexuales!sobre!ellas,!silbar!o!pitarles!con!

el! coche,! hacer! fotografías! no! solicitadas! de! sus! cuerpos,! presentar!

imágenes! sexualizadas! de! ellas! en! los! medios! de! comunicación! o!

pornografía,! acosarlas! sexualmente! y! actuar! violentamente! hacia! las!

mujeres!(Calogero,!2011,!p.!34).!

En! la! presente! tesis! doctoral! se! ha! estudiado! un! tipo! de!

conductas! cosificadoras:! los! piropos! –! esto! es,! los! comentarios! y!

observaciones! realizados! por! hombres! sobre! los! atributos! físicos! de!

24!

mujeres! desconocidas,! y! que! tienen! lugar! en! contextos! públicos.! Los!

piropos!puede!considerarse!un!ejemplo!claro!de!cosificación!sexual!muy!

presentes! en! la! sociedad! española.! Los! piropos! procedentes! de!

desconocidos!también!se!pueden!considerar!como!"acoso!callejero",!es!

decir,!el!"acoso!sexual!de!las!mujeres!en!lugares!públicos!por!parte!de!

hombres!desconocidos"!(Bowman,!1993,!p.!519).!Según!esta!autora,!el!

acoso! callejero! o! procedente! de! extraños! "incluye! comportamientos!

verbales! y! no! verbales,! como! aullidos,! miradas! lascivas,! guiños,!

tocamientos,! pellizcos,! silbidos! y! otros! comentarios;! siendo! estos!

últimos! con! frecuencia! de! naturaleza! sexual! o! comentarios! evaluativos!

sobre! la! apariencia! física! de! una! mujer! o! sobre! su! aspecto! público"!

(Bowman,!1993,!p.!523).!

Nuestro!objetivo!principal!fue!examinar!los!efectos!psicosociales!

en!las!mujeres!de!esta!habitual!forma!de!cosificación!dado!que,!aunque!

los!piropos!son!un!tema!muy!polémico!en!nuestro!país,!hasta!hoy!no!se!

sabe!casi!nada!sobre!sus!consecuencias.!

Esta!tesis!consta!de!seis!capítulos.!El!primero!aborda!la!teoría!de!

la!cosificación!y!ofrece!una!visión!sintética!de!la!literatura!existente!que!

explora!las!consecuencias!que!tiene!ser!objetivado.!Se!dedica!una!parte!

importante! de! este! capítulo! a! explicar! qué! son! los! piropos! y! su!

idiosincrasia.! La! mayoría! de! la! investigación! que! se! ha! realizado! sobre!

piropos!proviene!de!la!lingüística!y!de!la!literatura!y!nos!puede!ayudar!a!

entender! el! trasfondo! cultural! en! el! que! se! enmarcan! este! tipo! de!
 25!

comportamientos.!Los!capítulos!2,!3,!4!y!5!contienen!nuestros!estudios!

empíricos.!En!el!segundo!capítulo,!presentamos!la!versión!en!español!de!

la!Objectified!Body!Consciousness!Scale!(OBCS)!(McKinley!y!Hyde,!1998),!

escala! que! hemos! adaptado! para! tener! una! medida! válida! de! autoO

cosificación! que! poder! utilizar! en! nuestros! estudios.! El! capítulo! 3! está!

dedicado! a! explorar! diversas! dimensiones! de! los! numerosos! piropos!

utilizados!hoy!en!día!en!España.!Básicamente,!se!analizan!los!piropos!a!

lo! largo! de! dos! dimensiones:! cómo! se! evalúan,! y! si! se! perciben! como!

conductas! cosificadoras! o! no.! A! continuación,! utilizando! una!

metodología! de! escenarios! hipotéticos,! probamos! los! efectos! que! dos!

tipos! diferentes! de! piropos,! uno! "soez"! y! otro! "galante",! tienen! en! las!

mujeres!jóvenes.!Específicamente,!medimos!cómo!los!piropos!afectan!a!

las! experiencias! de! alegría,! ira,! ansiedad! y! tristeza! de! las! mujeres,! así!

como! también! a! sus! sentimientos! de! poder! y! de! indefensión.! Para!

asegurarnos! de! que! los! resultados! se! replicaban! y! no! eran! debido! a!

diferencias!individuales!de!los!participantes,!llevamos!a!cabo!un!estudio!

adicional! con! un! diseño! intraOparticipantes,! en! el! que! ambos! tipos! de!

piropos! fueron! evaluados! por! las! mismas! mujeres.! En! el! capítulo! 4!

presentamos!a!mujeres!jóvenes!un!piropo!"soez",!utilizando!uno!de!los!

escenarios! de! los! estudios! anteriores,! y! comprobamos! cómo! el! piropo!

afectaba!a!sus!emociones!y!sentimientos,!a!la!vez!que!considerábamos!

también! los! niveles! de! autoOcosificación! de! las! mujeres,! con! el! fin! de!

analizar! si! estos! niveles! moderaban! los! efectos! emocionales.! En! el!
26!

capítulo! 5! se! exploraron! otro! tipo! de! consecuencias! que! los! piropos!

pueden! tener! sobre! las! mujeres,! concretamente,! si! la! forma! de!

reaccionar!de!las!mujeres!hacia!un!piropo!“galante”!influye!en!la!forma!

en! que! son! percibidas! por! otras! personas.! Por! último,! a! lo! largo! del!

capítulo! 6! discutimos! brevemente! los! principales! hallazgos! que!

encontramos! a! lo! largo! de! los! diferentes! estudios! realizados! y! sus!

consecuencias,!así!como!algunas!ideas!para!la!investigación!futura.!
 !

OVERVIEW
! !

!
 ! 29!

Sexual!objectification!occurs!when!a!person!is!treated!as!a!mere!

body!that!exists!for!the!sexual!use!and!pleasure!of!others!(Bartky!1990;!

Nussbaum! 1999).! According! to! objectification! theory! (Fredrickson! &!

Roberts,!1997),!this!experience!of!being!treated!as!a!body!occurs!to!girls!

and!women!more!frequently!than!men,!and!can!result!in!what!has!been!

called! selfOobjectification,! which! happens! when! people! internalize! a!

view! of! themselves! as! an! object! or! collection! of! body! parts.! As! the!

research!published!since!the!formulation!of!the!theory!has!shown,!being!

objectified! has! important! negative! consequences! for! women! (for! a!

review,!see!for!example!Calogero,!TantleffODunn,!&!Thompson,!2011).!

Sexual! objectification! includes! a! wide! range! of! behaviours,! like!

“gazing! or! leering! at! women’s! bodies,! making! sexual! comments! about!

women,!whistling!or!honking!at!women,!taking!unsolicited!photographs!

of!women’s!bodies,!presenting!sexualized!images!of!women!in!media!or!

pornography,! sexually! harassing! women,! and! engaging! in! sexual!

violence!against!women”!(Calogero,!2011,!p.!34).!!

The! present! dissertation! studied! one! kind! of! these! objectifying!

behaviours:! piropos! –i.e.! men’s! remarks! about! physical! attributes!

directed! toward! unknown! women! in! public! contexts.! Piropos! can! be!

considered! a! clear! example! of! sexual! objectification! within! Spanish!

society.! Piropos! that! come! from! strangers! can! also! be! considered!

“stranger! harassment,”! that! is,! the! “[sexual]! harassment! of! women! in!

public! places! by! men! who! are! strangers”! (Bowman,! 1993,! p.! 519).!
30!

According!to!this!author,!stranger!harassment!“includes!both!verbal!and!

nonverbal!behavior,!such!as!wolfOwhistles,!leers,!winks,!grabs,!pinches,!

catcalls,! and! stranger! remarks;! the! remarks! are! frequently! sexual! in!

nature!and!comment!evaluatively!on!a!woman’s!physical!appearance!or!

on!her!presence!in!public”!(Bowman,!1993,!p.!523).!

Our! main! objective! was! to! examine! the! psychosocial! effects! on!

women!of!this!common!form!of!objectification,!given!piropos!are!a!very!

controversial!issue!in!our!country!but!until!today!we!didn’t!know!much!

about!their!consequences.!!

This! thesis! includes! six! chapters.! The! first! one,! approaches!

objectification! theory! and! offers! a! synthetic! view! of! the! existing!

literature!that!explores!the!consequences!of!being!objectified.!We!then!

dedicate!an!important!section!to!explain!piropos!and!their!idiosyncrasy.!

Most! of! the! research! that! has! been! conducted! about! piropos! comes!

from!the!linguistic!and!literature!area,!and!it!can!help!us!to!understand!

the! cultural! background! that! piropos! have.! Chapters! 2,! 3,! 4! and! 5!

contain! our! empirical! studies.! In! the! second! chapter,! we! present! the!

Spanish! version! of! the! Objectified! Body! Consciousness! Scale! (OBCS)!

(McKinley! &! Hyde,! 1998)! that! we! adapted! in! order! to! have! a! selfO

objectification! valid! measure! to! use! in! our! studies.! Chapter! 3! is!

dedicated!to!explore!different!dimensions!of!numerous!piropos!used!in!

Spain! nowadays.! Basically,! we! analyze! the! piropos! along! two!

dimensions:!how!they!are!evaluated,!and!whether!they!are!perceived!as!
 ! 31!

objectifying! behaviours! or! not.! Then,! using! hypothetical! scenarios!

methodology,!we!test!the!effects!that!two!different!types!of!piropos!OOa!

“lewd”! and! a! “gallant”! oneOO! have! on! young! women.! Specifically,! we!

measure! how! piropos! affect! the! experience! of! women’s! joy,! anger,!

anxiety!and!sadness,!and!also!their!sense!of!power!and!helplessness.!To!

ensure! that! the! results! replicate! and! are! not! due! to! participant’s!

individual! differences,! we! conduct! an! additional! study! with! a! within!

subject!design.!It!includes!both!kinds!of!piropos!to!be!evaluated!by!the!

same! participants.! In! Chapter! 4! we! present! to! young! women! a! “lewd”!

piropo.! Using! a! vignette! as! in! former! studies,! we! test! how! the! piropo!

affects! women’s! emotions! and! feelings,! analyzing! also! their! selfO

objectification! levels! in! order! to! analyse! if! they! moderate! these!

emotional! effects.! Chapter! 5! explores! another! kind! of! consequences!

that! piropos! may! have! on! women,! specifically,! whether! how! women’s!

react! toward! piropos! influences! the! way! they! are! perceived! by! other!

people.!Finally,!along!Chapter!6!we!briefly!discuss!the!main!findings!we!

find!throughout!the!different!studies!conducted!and!their!implications,!

as!well!as!some!ideas!we!have!for!future!research.!!

We!understand!that!the!reader!may!find!repetitive!the!outlined!

ideas! that! appear! more! than! once! across! this! dissertation.! The!

explanation!for!this!lies!in!the!fact!that!empirical!chapters!were!written!

as! individual! papers! to! be! submitted! for! publication.! We! also! wish! to!

apologize! due! to! the! combination! of! Spanish! and! English! along! this!
32!

doctoral!dissertation.!It!is!a!requirement!to!use!two!different!languages!

in! order! to! obtain! the! international! PhD! at! the! University! of! Granada
 ! 33!

References!

Bartky,!S.!(1990).!Femininity!and!domination.!New!York,!NY:!Routledge.!!

Bowman,!C.!G.!(1993).!Street!harassment!and!the!informal!ghettoization!

of!women.!Harvard!Law!Review,!106,!517O580.!

Fredrickson,! B.,! &! Roberts,! T.! (1997).! Objectification! Theory:! Toward!

understanding! women´s! lived! experiences! and! mental! health!

risks.! Psychology! of! Women! Quarterly,! 21,! 173O206.!

doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.1997.tb00108.x!!

Calogero,!R.!M.!(2011).!Operationalizing!selfOobjectification:!Assessment!

and! related! methodological! issues.! In! R.! M.! Calogero,! S.! TantleffO

Dunn,! &! J.! K.! Thompson! (Eds.),! SelfNObjectification! in! women:!

Causes,! consequences,! and! counteractions! (pp.! 23O49).!

Washington! DC:! American! Psychological! Association.!

doi:10.1037/12304O002!

Calogero,! R.! M.,! TantleffODunn,! &! J.! K.! Thompson! (2011).! SelfN

Objectification! in! women:! Causes,! consequences,! and!

counteractions! (pp.! 23O49).! Washington! DC:! American!

Psychological!Association.!doi:10.1037/12304O002!!

McKinley,!N.,!&!Hyde,!J.!S.!(1996).!The!Objectified!Body!Consciousness!

Scale.! Development! and! validation.! Psychology! of! Women!

Quarterly,!20,!181O215.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.1996.tb00467.x!

Nussbaum,!M.!C.!(1999).!Sex!and!social!justice.!Oxford,!England:!Oxford!

University!Press.!
! !

!
 ! ! !

Chapter 1:

Introduction/Introducción
! !

!
 INTRODUCTION! 37!
! !

1.!Cosificación!

1.1.!Definición/Teoría!

La!sociedad!de!consumo!instaurada!en!los!países!occidentales!da!

muestras! continuas! de! cómo! los! individuos! son! percibidos!

frecuentemente! en! función! de! la! utilidad! que! puedan! tener! para! el!

resto.!Esto!es,!mayor!será!tu!valor!cuanto!mayor!sea!la!utilidad!con!que!

te!perciben.!Ya!en!su!día!Marx!(1897/1959)!destacó!la!valía!que!otorga!

el! capitalismo! a! las! personas! en! función! de! su! productividad.! Por! lo!

tanto!es!fácil!entrever!que!cosificar!a!las!personas!no!es!un!fenómeno!

nuevo.!Centrándonos!en!el! caso!concreto!de!la!población!femenina,! la!

utilidad! con! la! que! se! percibe! a! las! mujeres! está! muchas! veces!

relacionada! con! su! sexualidad,! esto! es,! con! ser! consideradas! objetos!

sexuales! (Gruenfeld,! Inesi,! Magee,! y! Galinsky,! 2008).! Y! es! que! las!

mujeres!son!“definidas,!evaluadas!y!tratadas!como!objetos!sexuales!más!

frecuentemente!de!lo!que!lo!son!los!hombres”!(Calogero,!2011,!p.!4).!!

Las!referencias!a!la!cosificación!de!la!mujer!son!recurrentes!a!lo!

largo! de! la! historia.! Por! mencionar! algunas,! ya! en! 1792! Mary!

Wollstonecraft,!en!su!Vindicación!de!los!Derechos!de!la!Mujer!(reedición!

1995),!afirmaba!que!la!instrucción!que!las!mujeres!habían!recibido!hasta!

ese!momento,!había!sido!la!de!limitarse!a!ser!insignificantes!objetos!de!

deseo.! Años! más! tarde,! Simone! de! Beauvoir! reflexionaría! sobre! los!

peligros!de!ser!vista!como!un!cuerpo!o!una!cosa.!Por!ejemplo,!en!este!
38! CHAPTER!1!
!

extracto! del! Segundo! Sexo! (1952/2000),! de! Beauvoir! ejemplifica! la!

transición!de!una!niña!en!la!pubertad!que!empieza!a!desarrollarse!como!

mujer:! “…Brazos,! piernas,! músculos,! incluso! las! redondas! nalgas! sobre!

las!cuales!se!sienta,!todo!tenía!hasta!entonces!un!uso!claro…;!Debajo!del!

jersey! o! de! la! blusa,! los! senos! se! manifiestan,! y! aquel! cuerpo! que! la!

pequeña! confundía! consigo! misma! aparece! como! carne;! es! un! objeto!

que!los!demás!miran!y!ven.”!(p.!133).!Para!Beauvoir,!ser!visto!como!cosa!

es! algo! que! impide! al! individuo! ser! reconocido! como! libre,! y! tal!

consideración!de!las!mujeres!como!mero!objeto!sexual,!se!torna!así!en!

un!gran!problema!para!ellas.!!!

!Centrando! la! atención! en! pensadoras! contemporáneas,!

encontramos!la!definición!de!la!filósofa!Martha!Nussbaum,!según!la!cual!

la! cosificación! implica! “tratar! como! cosa! algo! que! realmente! no! es! un!

objeto,! sino! que! es,! en! realidad,! un! ser! humano”! (Nussbaum,! 1995,! p.!

218).!Esta!autora!propone!hasta!siete!nociones!diferentes!que!subyacen!

a!la!idea!de!cosificación:!1)!instrumentalidad;!2)!negación!de!autonomía;!

3)! falta! de! agencia! y! actividad;! 4)! fungibilidad;! 5)! violabilidad;! 6)!

propiedad;! y! 7)! negación! de! la! subjetividad.! Subraya! además! que! la!

cosificación!sexual!es!un!concepto!que!ya!empieza!a!resultarnos!familiar!

y!que!las!personas!empleamos!con!asiduidad!en!nuestra!vida!diaria.!

También!desde!la!filosofía,!Sandra!Bartky!(1990)!formula!una!de!

las! ya! más! citadas! definiciones! de! cosificación! sexual! femenina,!

definiéndola! como! “considerar! a! la! mujer! como! un! cuerpo,! partes! del!
 INTRODUCTION! 39!
! !

cuerpo! o! funciones! sexuales! capaces! de! representarla,! obviando! sus!

características!como!persona”!(p.!26).!

Si! bien! las! diferentes! concepciones! del! fenómeno! de! la!

cosificación! sexual! arriba! mencionadas! ilustran! que! ésta! ha! sido!

abordada!desde!diferentes!disciplinas!y!por!autoras!de!distinto!bagaje,!

lo! cierto! es! que! no! es! hasta! 1997! cuando! se! dispone! de! un! marco!

conceptual! integrador! de! todas! ellas,! al! menos! desde! la! Psicología.! Es!

entonces! cuando! Fredrickson! y! Roberts! enuncian! la! teoría! de! la!

cosificación,! buscando! ofrecer! un! punto! de! partida! que! permitiera! la!

investigación! empírica! de! las! consecuencias! psicológicas! que! pudiera!

tener! este! fenómeno! (Calogero,! 2011).! Según! las! autoras,! “el! factor!

común!a!todas!las!formas!de!cosificación!sexual!es!la!experiencia!de!ser!

tratada!como!un!cuerpo!(o!una!colección!de!partes!del!cuerpo),!valorado!

predominantemente! para! su! uso! (o! consumo)! por! parte! de! otros”!

(Fredrickson!y!Roberts,!1997,!p.!174).!Aunque!reconocen!que!no!todas!

las!mujeres!experimentan!la!cosificación!de!la!misma!manera,!parten!de!

la!base!de!que!su!cuerpo!de!mujer!las!convierte!en!vulnerables!a!sufrir!

cosificación! sexual! y! a! padecer! por! ende! experiencias! psicológicas!

similares.! En! su! teoría! consideran! investigaciones! realizadas! con!

mujeres! negras,! lo! que! resulta! relevante! pues! el! resto! de! trabajos!

anteriores! se! habían! centrado! fundamental! y! casi! exclusivamente! en!

mujeres! blancas! de! clase! media.! Además,! un! detalle! interesante! que!

plantean! es! que! pese! a! que! las! consecuencias! psicológicas! de! la!

violencia!sexual!han!captado!la!atención!de!numerosos!investigadores,!
40! CHAPTER!1!
!

formas! más! sutiles! y! cotidianas! de! cosificación,! como! es! el! mirar!

fijamente! el! cuerpo! (mirada! cosificadora),! han! pasado! desapercibidas.!!

Fredrickson! y! Roberts! (1997)! especifican! que! la! mirada! cosificadora! se!

da! fundamentalmente! en! tres! escenarios:! a)! en! encuentros!

interpersonales!y!sociales,!donde!las!mujeres!son!miradas!de!este!modo!

con!más!frecuencia!que!los!hombres!(Hall,!1984);!b)!cuando!se!recrean!

encuentros! centrados! en! miradas! cosificadoras! en! los! medios! de!

comunicación,! (por! ejemplo! a! través! de! anuncios! donde! los! hombres!

aparecen! mirando! directamente! a! la! mujer);! y! c)! en! la! exposición!

constante! a! imágenes! de! cuerpos! o! partes! del! cuerpo! de! mujeres!

también! en!los!medios!de!comunicación,!(lo!cual!no!se!limita!solo!a!la!

pornografía,! sino! también! a! películas,! anuncios,! revistas! femeninas,!

artes! visuales,! fotografía! deportiva….).! Con! respecto! a! esta! última,!

Fredrickson! y! Roberts! resaltan! la! sobreexposición! actual! de! imágenes!

sexualizadas! del! cuerpo! femenino,! que! aseguran! hace! casi! imposible!

para!las!mujeres!evitar!su!exposición!a!las!mismas.!!

Una! repercusión! crítica! de! ser! vistos! por! los! demás! de! forma!

sexualmente! cosificadora,! es! que! con! el! tiempo! los! individuos! pueden!

llegar! a! internalizar! una! visión! de! sí! mismos! como! observadores,! un!

efecto! que! se! denomina! autoOcosificación! (selfOobjetification)!

(Fredrickson!y!Roberts,!1997).!La!supervisión!consciente!del!cuerpo!que!

resulta! de! la! autoOcosificación! puede! concebirse! como! una! estrategia!

que! desarrollan! las! mujeres! para! predecir! cómo! serán! tratadas! por! los!

demás,! lo! que! obviamente! tiene! importantes! repercusiones! en! su!

 INTRODUCTION! 41!
! !

calidad!de!vida.!Este!hábito,!además,!está!lejos!de!ser!trivial,!y!puede!ser!

muy!disruptivo!para!el!flujo!de!la!consciencia!de!las!mujeres!(haciendo!

por! ejemplo! que! sus! acciones! y! pensamientos! queden! interrumpidos!

por! imágenes! de! qué! aspecto! tiene! su! cuerpo,! consecuencia! de! la!

constante!supervisión!del!mismo!por!parte!de!los!demás).!Cabe!aclarar!

que,! en! nuestra! opinión,! en! la! literatura! dedicada! al! tema,! es!

prácticamente!imposible!distinguir!entre!cosificación!y!autoOcosificación!

en!lo!que!se!refiere!a!sus!consecuencias.!Dependiendo!del!!trabajo,!se!!

habla! bien! de! efectos! de! la! cosificación,! bien! de! efectos! de! la! autoO

cosificación,!o!incluso!se!intercambian!las!palabras!como!sinónimas.!!

Aunque! Fredrickson! y! Roberts! reconocen! que! no! todas! las!

mujeres!experimentan!la!cosificación!de!la!misma!manera!y!que!existen!

diferencias! individuales! que! influyen! en! el! modo! en! que! se! vive! la!

cosificación! sexual,! fruto! de! sus! investigaciones! y! de! las! de! otros!

determinan! que! existen! una! serie! de! consecuencias! psicológicas! y!

experienciales! muy! frecuentes! en! muchas! de! ellas.! En! primer! lugar,! a!

nivel! emocional,! la! cosificación! o! autoOcosificación! podría! afectar! a! las!

emociones! de! vergüenza! y! ansiedad.! La! primera! es! una! emoción! que!

como!sabemos!surge!habitualmente!cuando!las!personas!se!comparan!

con! un! ideal! interiorizado! o! cultural! que! no! cumplen! (Darwin,!

1872/1965;!M.!Lewis,!1992);!en!este!caso!aparecería!en!relación!con!el!

aspecto! físico,! algo! que! parece! ocurrir! con! más! frecuencia! en! mujeres!

que! en! hombres! (H.! Lewis,! 1971;! Silberstein,! StriegelOMoore,! y!

Rodin,1987;! Stapley! y! Haviland,! 1989).! En! el! caso! de! la! ansiedad,!
42! CHAPTER!1!
!

emoción! que! se! vincula! a! la! anticipación! de! un! daño! o! amenaza!

(Lazarus,! 1991;! Ohman,! 1993),! vendría! dada! en! el! caso! que! nos! ocupa!

tanto! por! la! preocupación! por! no! ajustarse! a! los! cánones! de! belleza,!

como!por!la!amenaza!que!puede!suponer!para!la!propia!integridad!física!

de!las!mujeres!ser!agredidas!por!su!apariencia!física.!Además!de!sobre!

estas!dos!emociones,!Fredrickson!y!Roberts!reflexionan!acerca!de!otros!

efectos! de! la! autoOcosificación! sobre! lo! que! denominan! “los! estados!

motivacionales!más!elevados”.!Csikszentmihalyi!(1982,!1990)!denomina!

‘flow’!a!la!situación!de!estar!absorbido!por!una!actividad!física!o!mental!

que!supone!un!reto!y!que!nos!es!inmensamente!reconfortante!porque!

creemos!contar!con!la!capacidad!suficiente!para!hacer!frente!a!ella.!Una!

cultura!como!la!nuestra,!que!cosifica!el!cuerpo!femenino,!puede!impedir!

o! dificultar! a! la! mujer! alcanzar! este! estado! motivacional,! bien! porque!

con! frecuencia! es! interrumpida! por! otros! para! hacer! referencia! a! su!

cuerpo,! bien! porque! para! alcanzar! el! flow! hay! que! dejan! de! atender! a!

sus! propias! sensaciones! físicas.! Por! último,! las! autoras! hablan! de! las!

consecuencias!de!la!autoOcosificación!en!los!estados!corporales!internos!

de! las! mujeres.! Numerosos! estudios! han! sugerido! que! las! mujeres! son!

menos! precisas! que! los! hombres! a! la! hora! de! detectar! sensaciones!

fisiológicas!internas!en!ausencia!de!claves!contextuales!(e.g.,!Blascovich!!

y! cols.,! 1992),! lo! que! las! autoras! relacionan! con! la! autoOcosificación,!

pues!todo!lo!que!implica!esta!experiencia,!podría!llevar!a!las!mujeres!a!

dejar!de!atender!a!sus!propias!sensaciones!físicas.!!
 INTRODUCTION! 43!
! !

La! teoría! de! la! cosificación! defiende! que! todas! las! potenciales!

consecuencias! de! la! autoOcosificación! anteriormente! comentadas!

pueden! afectar! a! la! salud! mental! de! las! mujeres.! Concretamente! a! la!

depresión,! las! disfunciones! sexuales! y! los! desórdenes! de! alimentación,!

entre!otros.!!

A! continuación,! haremos! un! breve! repaso! por! la! literatura! que!

desde!la!aparición!de!la!teoría!de!la!cosificación!en!1997,!ha! analizado!

algunas! de! las! consecuencias! negativas! que! tiene! para! las! mujeres! ser!

tratadas!como!objetos!sexuales.!

1.!2.!Consecuencias!de!la!AutoGcosificación!

Si! bien! las! enumeradas! hasta! ahora! son! las! potenciales!

consecuencias! psicológicas! propuestas! por! Fredrickson! y! Roberts! en! la!

teoría!de!la!cosificación,!las!numerosas!investigaciones!dedicadas!a!este!

tema! a! raíz! de! su! publicación! en! 1997,! han! permitido! identificar!

empíricamente! un! amplio! abanico! de! efectos! perniciosos! que! la! autoO

cosificación! tiene! en! las! mujeres.! Así,! sabemos! que! afecta!

negativamente!a!su!bienestar!subjetivo!!(e.g.,!Breines,!Crocker,!y!Garcia,!

2008;!Mercurio!y!Landry,!2008),!y!que!produce!un!impacto!negativo!en!

la! autoestima! corporal! (e.g.,! McKinley,! 1998,! 1999;! McKinley! y! Hyde,!

1996;! Noll! y! Fredrickson,! 1998).! La! autoOcosificación! también! ha!

mostrado!tener!efectos!en!los!patrones!de!dieta!de!chicas!adolescentes!

(Grabe!y!Hyde,!2009),!relacionándose!con!trastornos!de!la!alimentación!

(e.g.,! Calogero,! Herbozo! y! Thompson,! 2009;! Calogero,! Davis,! y!

44! CHAPTER!1!
!

Thompson,! 2005;! Daubenmier,! 2005;! Moradi,! Dirks,! y! Matteson,! 2005;!

Tylka! y! Hill,! 2004).! En! cuanto! a! la! salud! mental,! se! ha! encontrado! que!

contribuye! a! padecer! síntomas! depresivos! y! depresión! unipolar! (e.g.,!

Grabe,! Hyde,! y! Lindberg,! 2007;! MinerORubino,! Twenge,! y! Fredrickson,!

2002;!Muehlenkamp!y!SarisOBaglama,!2002;!Tiggemann!y!Kuring,!2004),!

se! relaciona! con! un! aumento! de! la! probabilidad! de! autoOlesionarse!

(Muehlenkamp,! Swanson,! y! Brausch,! 2005)! y! de! abusar! de! sustancias!

(Carr!y!Szymanski,!2010).!También!hay!hallazgos!que!señalan!que!afecta!

a! la! salud! sexual! de! las! mujeres! (e.g.,! Calogero! y! cols.! 2009;! Cash,!

Maikkula,! y! Yamamiya,! 2004;! Claudat! y! Warren,! 2014;! Steer! y!

Tiggemann,! 2008)! y! se! ha! encontrado! una! influencia! de! la! autoO

cosificación! en! el! empeoramiento! del! rendimiento! cognitivo!

(Fredrickson,! Roberts,! Noll,! Quinn,! y! Twenge,! 1998;! Gay! y! Castano,!

2010;! Gervais,! Vescio! y! Allen,! 2011;! Quinn,! Kallen,! Twenge,! y!

Fredrickson,! 2006).! Igualmente! graves! son! los! efectos! de! la! autoO

cosificación! sobre! el! miedo! y! la! percepción! de! riesgo! de! violación!

hallados! por! Fairchild! y! Rudman! (2008),! o! la! mayor! culpabilización! de!

víctimas! de! violación! que! previamente! habían! sido! cosificadas!

(Loughnan,!Pina,!Vasquez!y!Puvia,!2013).!!

Estos!son!sólo!algunos!de!los!hallazgos!que!a!lo!largo!de!casi!20!

años! han! venido! a! servir! de! evidencia! a! lo! que! Fredrickson! y! Roberts!

postularon!en!1997.!En!definitiva,!vemos!que!la!cosificación!sexual,!una!

experiencia!recurrente!que!sufren!las!mujeres!a!lo!largo!de!sus!vidas,!y!
 INTRODUCTION! 45!
! !

la! autoOcosificación! que! se! deriva! de! ella,! tienen! efectos! negativos! de!

muy!diversa!índole!en!su!bienestar.!

!Después! de! ver! algunos! de! los! resultados! de! numerosos!

estudios! dedicados! al! tema,! pasaremos! ahora! a! considerar! cómo! la!

forma!de!abordar!empíricamente!el!fenómeno!de!la!cosificación!sexual!

varía!según!las!investigaciones.!!

1.3.! Aproximaciones! al! Estudio! de! la! Cosificación! y! la! AutoG

cosificación!

! Desde!su!formulación,!la!teoría!de!la!cosificación!ha!generado!

numerosos!estudios,!algunos!de!ellos!considerando!la!cosificación!como!

una! experiencia! relativamente! repetida! a! lo! largo! del! tiempo! mientras!

que!otros!la!han!abordado!como!una!situación!puntual.!Así,!dentro!de!la!

primera! concepción,! muchas! investigaciones! se! han! centrado! en! hacer!

recordar! a! las! mujeres! experiencias! cosificadoras! vividas,! bien!

pidiéndoles! que! las! escriban,! bien! mediante! el! uso! de! escalas! que!

indagan!sobre!la!prevalencia!y!frecuencia!de!dichas!experiencias,!como!

es!el!caso!de!la!Interpersonal!Sexual!Objectification!Scale!(ISOS)!(Kozee,!

Tylka,! AugustusOHorvath! y! Denchik,! 2007).! Por! otro! lado,! dentro! de! la!

segunda!perspectiva,!que!aborda!la!cosificación!de!forma!más!puntual,!

existe! una! línea! de! trabajos! que! se! ha! focalizado! en! generar! una!

situación! cosificadora! y! analizar! las! consecuencias! que! tiene! en! las!

mujeres.! Estas! situaciones! pueden! variar! desde! aquéllas! en! las! que! la!

cosificación! es! bastante! explícita! hasta! otras! de! tipo! más! implícito! o!
46! CHAPTER!1!
!

sutil.! Entre! las! primeras! estarían,! por! ejemplo,! la! empleada! por!

Fredrickson!y!cols.!(1998),!donde!se!pedía!a!las!mujeres!que!se!pusieran!

un!traje!de!baño!(“SwimsuitOSweater!Paradigm”)!y!se!observaran!frente!

al!espejo,!o!la!del!estudio!de!Gervais!y!cols.!(2011)!en!el!que!las!mujeres!

recibieron!miradas!cosificadoras!por!parte!de!un!chico.!Investigaciones!

en! las! que! la! manipulación! de! la! situación! cosificadora! es! más! sutil!

serían! aquéllas! donde! se! prima! a! las! participantes! con! palabras!

vinculadas!a!la!cosificación!(Calogero!y!Pina,!2011;!Roberts!y!Gettman,!

2004),! o! estudios! en! los! que! las! participantes! anticipan! la! interacción!

con!un!hombre!(Calogero,!2004).!

! !!Tras! esta! breve! aproximación! a! las! diferentes! formas! de!

estudio!de!la!cosificación!sexual,!veremos!seguidamente!una!distinción!

importante! entre! lo! que! se! ha! denominado! autoOcosificación! rasgo! y!

autoOcosificación! estado,! pues! se! trata! de! una! conceptualización! que!

hemos!contemplado!en!nuestras!investigaciones.!

1.!4.!AutoGcosificación!Rasgo!y!Estado!

Dentro! de! la! teoría! de! la! cosificación,! suele! ser! habitual!

diferenciar! entre! ! autoOcosificación! rasgo! (trait! selfOobjectification)! y!

autoOcosificación! estado! (state! selfOobjectification)! (Calogero! y! Pina,!

2011;!Fredrickson!y!Roberts,!1997).!La!primera!es!la!tendencia!crónica!a!

ver! el! propio! cuerpo! a! través! de! la! lente! de! la! cosificación,! tanto! en!

contextos!públicos!como!privados.!La!autoOcosificación!estado!se!refiere!

a!la!situación!temporal!en!la!que!las!personas!se!ven!a!sí!mismas!como!
 INTRODUCTION! 47!
! !

objetos! en! respuesta! a! estímulos! ambientales.! Las! investigaciones! que!

han! incluido! los! dos! tipos! de! autoOcosificación! muestran! que! la! autoO

cosificación! estado! es! especialmente! dañina! para! las! mujeres! altas! en!

autoOcosificación! rasgo! (e.g.,! Fredrickson! ! y! cols.! 1998;! Gapinski,!

Brownell!y!LaFrance,!2003).!!

A!pesar!de!este!importante!posible!papel!moderador!de!la!autoO

cosificación! rasgo! en! las! situaciones! cosificadoras,! no! hay! mucha!

investigación!previa!que!haya!tratado!sobre!ello.!Gay!y!Castano!(2010)!

encontraron! que! era! necesaria! la! combinación! de! la! autoOcosificación!

rasgo!y!un!contexto!cosificador!(que!generara!autoOcosificación!estado)!

para!que!aparecieran!consecuencias!negativas,!como!el!incremento!de!

la! carga! cognitiva! y,! como! resultado! de! ésta,! el! empeoramiento! en! el!

rendimiento! de! las! mujeres.! Por! su! parte! Calogero! y! colaboradores!

(2009)!encontraron!que!ante!críticas!relacionadas!con!la!apariencia,!las!

mujeres! altas! en! autoOcosificación! rasgo! informaban! de! mayor!

vergüenza!e!insatisfacción!corporales!que!las!bajas!en!autoOcosificación.!

De! manera! similar,! con! el! ya! clásico! “SwimsuitOSweater! Paradigm”,!

Fredrickson! y! colaboradoras! (1998)! encontraron! que! la! condición! del!

bañador!elicitaba!mayores!niveles!de!vergüenza!corporal,!pero!sólo!en!

aquellas!participantes!altas!en!autoOcosificación!rasgo.!

Sin! embargo,! según! la! teoría! de! la! cosificación,! cabría! esperar!

que! las! mujeres! altas! en! autoOcosificación! rasgo! reaccionasen! de!

manera! menos! negativa! ante! conductas! cosificadoras! (Fredrickson! y!

Roberts,! 1997).! De! acuerdo! a! esta! teoría,! estas! mujeres! habrían!

48! CHAPTER!1!
!

desarrollado! una! tendencia! a! verse! a! sí! mismas! enfatizando! sus!

cualidades! corporales! (en! detrimento! de! otros! esquemas! que! también!

podrían! usar! para! autoOpercibirse),! lo! que! minimizaría! el! impacto!

negativo!de!una!situación!cosificadora.!!

! Como! veremos! más! adelante,! para! nosotros! era! de! especial!

interés! investigar! el! posible! papel! moderador! de! la! autoOcosificación!

rasgo!en!nuestro!objeto!de!estudio,!los!piropos!por!parte!de!extraños,!

pues! esperábamos! que! los! niveles! de! autoOcosificación! de! las! mujeres!

afectaran! al! modo! en! el! que! éstas! experimentaban! dichas! situaciones!

cosificadoras.!!

Antes!de!pasar!a!considerar!las!situaciones!de!cosificación!objeto!

de!estudio!en!esta!tesis,!los!piropos,!comentaremos!un!tipo!de!situación!

cosificadora!que!ha!recibido!cierta!atención!en!las!investigaciones!sobre!

autoOcosificación:! el! street! harassment,! dado! que! guarda! bastante!

relación!con!los!piropos.!!

1.!5.!Ejemplos!Cotidianos!de!Cosificación!de!la!Mujer:!Street%%

Harassment!

Tras!una!aproximación!general!al!concepto!de!cosificación!sexual!

generado! desde! diferentes! ámbitos! de! conocimiento! y! especialmente!

desde!la!Psicología!con!la!teoría!de!la!cosificación!sexual,!queda!patente!

que!las!mujeres!sufren!de!esta!tiranía!con!mucha!frecuencia!a!lo!largo!

de! sus! vidas.! Como! hemos! visto,! Fredrickson! y! Roberts! (1997)!

mencionaban!tres!tipos!de!situaciones!en!las!que!las!mujeres!suelen!ser!
 INTRODUCTION! 49!
! !

cosificadas.! En! esta! misma! línea,! Calogero! señala! que! algunas! de! las!

situaciones! o! conductas! que! se! han! definido! como! cosificación! sexual!

incluyen!“la!mirada!al!cuerpo!de!las!mujeres,!los!comentarios!sexuales!

sobre!sus!cuerpos,!los!silbidos!o!pitidos!con!el!coche,!ser!fotografiadas!

con!un!teléfono!móvil,!ser!expuestas!a!imágenes!sexuales!en!los!medios!

o! pornografía,! el! acoso,! la! violencia! sexual! y! la! violación”! (Calogero,!

2011,! p.! 34).! Esta! definición! da! pie! a! considerar! las! numerosas!

oportunidades!de!ser!cosificadas!que!acontecen!en!el!día!a!día!de!una!

mujer.! Resulta! bastante! probable! pensar! que! prácticamente! cualquier!

persona! estaría! de! acuerdo! en! reconocer! que! las! tres! últimas!

situaciones! constituyen! con! seguridad! comportamientos! nocivos! y! de!

gran! peligro! para! la! integridad! física! y! mental! de! las! mujeres.! Sin!

embargo,! es! reseñable! el! hecho! de! que! el! resto! de! conductas!

enumeradas! en! dicha! definición! y! consideradas! como! ejemplos! de!

cosificación! sexual,! son! algo! tan! habitual! en! la! cotidianidad! de! la!

población!femenina,!que!pudieran!pasar!por!poco!importantes.!Es!más,!

de!la!misma!manera!que!sería!muy!difícil!encontrar!personas!que!no!se!

posicionasen! públicamente! en! contra! del! acoso! sexual,! la! violencia!

sexual!o!la!violación,!es!posible!que!las!miradas!que!las!mujeres!reciben!

dirigidas! a! sus! cuerpos,! los! comentarios! de! extraños! por! la! calle,! los!

silbidos! o! pitidos,! no! sean! considerados! como! algo! reprobable! con! la!

misma! rotundidad.! No! obstante,! hemos! de! señalar! que! sí! hay! países! y!

culturas! en! las! que! existen! cierta! unanimidad! en! rechazar! las! miradas,!

comentarios!y!pitadas!hacia!las!mujeres!(como!el!caso!de!Bélgica,!donde!
50! CHAPTER!1!
!

este! tipo! de! comportamientos! se! han! llegado! a! prohibir;! Cruz,! 2015),!

mientras!que!en!otros!muchos!lugares!resulta!un!tema!en!el!que!existe!

alta! diversidad! de! opiniones,! llegándose! incluso! a! criticar! a! aquellas!

voces!que!se!alzan!condenando!dichos!comportamientos!(e.g.,!Ferreras,!

2015;!Posadas,!n.d.;!Sust,!2015).!!

En! el! caso! concreto! de! España,! donde! se! han! desarrollado! los!

diferentes! estudios! que! componen! esta! Tesis! Doctoral,! existe! cierto!

revuelo! en! torno! a! los! mencionados! comentarios! sexuales! sobre! el!

cuerpo! de! la! mujer,! que! hace! ya! años! que! ocupa! los! medios! y!

conversaciones! de! muchos! de! sus! ciudadanos! y! ciudadanas! (e.g.,! “La!

Presidenta,”! 2015;! “¿Son! estos! piropos?”,! 2015).! Y! es! que,! recibir! un!

comentario! en! la! calle! por! parte! de! un! extraño! haciendo! alusión! a!

alguna! característica! física,! sigue! siendo! a! día! de! hoy! una! escena!

habitual!en!la!vida!de!las!mujeres!españolas.!Es!lo!que!conocemos!como!

piropo,! una! práctica! que! se! remonta! a! siglos! atrás! y! que! puede! ser!

etiquetada! como! cosificadora,! ya! que! consiste! en! comentarios! que! se!

centran! fundamentalmente! en! el! físico! de! la! mujer! y! la! relegan! a! un!

mero! objeto,! lo! que! coincide! por! ejemplo! con! la! definición! de! Bartky!

(1990),! según! la! cual! al! ser! cosificada,! “la! mujer! es! vista! como! un!

cuerpo,! partes! del! cuerpo! o! funciones! sexuales! capaces! de!

representarla,!obviando!sus!características!como!persona”!(p.!26).!

A! continuación! pasaremos! a! hacer! un! análisis! más! detallado! de!

lo!que!son!los!piropos,!remontándonos!a!su!origen!y!tradición!histórica!y!

considerando!algunas!de!sus!peculiaridades!e!idiosincrasia.!!
 INTRODUCTION! 51!
! !

2.!El!Piropo!

2.!1.!Definición!

Hasta!hace!apenas!dos!años,!el!Diccionario!de!la!Real!Academia!

Española!se!refería!a!los!piropos!como!“lisonjas,!requiebros”.!Resultaba!

pues! llamativo! el! empleo! de! un! lenguaje! que! parecía! más! propio! de!

épocas!pasadas!para!denominar!a!un!fenómeno!aun!vigente!en!España.!

La!última!actualización!de!dicho!diccionario!el!pasado!año,!pasó!a!definir!

el!piropo!como!un!“dicho!breve!con!que!se!pondera!alguna!cualidad!de!

alguien,!especialmente!la!belleza!de!la!mujer”!(Real!Academia!Española,!

2014).!Esta!definición!no!menciona!en!su!contenido!alusión!alguna!hacia!

la! persona! emisora! del! piropo.! Y! es! que! si! bien! hablando! en! términos!

coloquiales,! una! mujer! pudiera! recibir! el! piropo! de! alguien! con! quien!

mantiene! una! relación! cercana,! o! de! otra! mujer,! el! piropo! en! su!

tradición!histórica!es!realizado!por!personas!extrañas!a!quien!los!recibe.!

En!nuestro!caso,!preferimos!el!uso!de!la!palabra!cumplido!o!halago!para!

referirnos!a!los!comentarios!por!parte!de!conocidos.!Como!ejemplo!de!

esto! último,! Carvajal! (2014)! señala! que! cuando! se! utiliza! piropo! como!

sinónimo! de! cumplido,! lo! que! se! está! haciendo! es! aludir! a! la!

cotidianidad,!y!equiparar!ambas!cosas!como!si!se!tratara!de!una!misma,!

cuando! no! lo! son.! Justifica! esta! afirmación! la! autora! remitiéndose! a!

Schreier!(2005),!que!defiende!que!el!piropo!no!puede!entenderse!como!

una!expresión!perteneciente!a!la!cortesía.!Esto!se!debe!a!que!la!cortesía!

requiere! de! dos! condiciones! fundamentales! para! darse:! que! las! dos!
52! CHAPTER!1!
!

personas!se!conozcan!–o!al!menos!tengan!la!intención!de!hacerloO!y!que!

vaya! a! existir! una! respuesta! en! el! caso! de! la! persona! receptora! del!

comentario.!En!el!caso!del!piropo,!tal!como!nosotros!lo!entendemos,!no!

se!cumplen!dichas!reglas,!pues!a!diferencia!del!halago,!“se!da!en!la!calle,!

bajo! condiciones! de! anonimato! y! casi! siempre! con! el! silencio! como!

respuesta”! (Schreier,! 2005,! p.! 33).! Así! pues,! cuando! a! lo! largo! de! este!

trabajo!utilicemos!el!término!piropo,!nos!estaremos!refiriendo!siempre!

a! “la! frase! o! expresión! espontánea! que! un! hombre! dirige! a! una! mujer!

desconocida!en!plena!calle!o!en!otro!espacio!abierto!y!público”!(Preisig,!

1998).!Tal!y!como!afirma!Fridlizius!(2009),!el!piropo!entre!desconocidos!

hace! referencia! casi! siempre! (de! manera! directa! o! indirecta)! al! cuerpo!

femenino!y!no!a!otras!cualidades!diferentes!del!físico!de!las!mujeres.!Se!

confirma,! de! nuevo,! la! naturaleza! cosificadora! que! venimos!

defendiendo.!!

2.!2.!Orígenes!de!los!Piropos!

En! relación! con! los! orígenes! del! piropo,! existe! diversidad! de!

opiniones.! En! uno! de! los! primeros! trabajos! dedicados! a! los! piropos!

desde!el!campo!de!la!lingüística,!Beinhauer!(1973)!tilda!al!piropo!de!un!

fenómeno!típicamente!español.!Preisig!(1998)!a!su!vez,!considera!que!es!

una! costumbre! genuinamente! española! que! en! sus! inicios! practicaban!

poetas! y! dramaturgos,! y! que! llegado! el! siglo! XVIII! se! extendió,! en! una!

versión! más! desenfadada,! al! ámbito! de! la! calle! a! través! del! teatro!

popular.!Soukkio!(1998)!por!su!parte,!apunta!al!amor!cortés!y!la!cultura!
 INTRODUCTION! 53!
! !

trovadoresca!europea!de!los!siglos!XI!y!XII,!como!las!raíces!más!antiguas!

del!piropo.!Para!Venclovská!(2006),!el!piropo!surgiría!con!posterioridad!

al! romance! medieval.! Y! es! que! tras! la! desaparición! de! los! romances!

medievales,! surgirían! coplas! cantadas! por! grupos! de! jóvenes! a! las!

mujeres!para!demostrar!su!interés!hacia!ellas.!!!

Si!bien!pues!no!podemos!estar!seguros!de!cual!sea!el!origen!real!

de! los! piropos,! lo! que! sí! que! parece! claro! es! que! han! constituido! un!

elemento!importante!en!la!cultura!española,!dentro!de!la!que!cuentan!

con!una!gran!tradición!(Preisig,!1998).!Además,!independientemente!de!

su!procedencia,!existe!bastante!consenso!al!entender!que!el!piropo!sin!

embargo!no!es!un!fenómeno!exclusivamente!español,!sino!que!se!da!en!

muchos!países!de!cultura!mediterránea!(Carvajal,!2014;!SuárezOOrozco!y!

Dundes,!1984),!y!en!países!de!habla!hispana!en!América!y!otras!partes!

del! mundo! (Diosdado,! 1996;! Fridlizius,! 2009).! Aunque! Carvajal! (2014)!

explica! que! el! arraigo! hispánico! del! piropo! en! Latinoamérica! podría!

asociarse!con!la!colonización,!se!trata!sólo!de!una!especulación.!!

2.!3.!El!Piropo!en!la!Actualidad!

Ya! en! 1973,! en! su! investigación! sobre! el! piropo! español,!

Beinhauer! apuntaba! a! que! el! piropo! “no! se! estilaba”.! Según! Preisig!

(1998),!son!muchos!los!españoles!que!aun!hoy!recuerdan!con!nostalgia!

esta! costumbre,! que! según! ella! se! ha! ido! perdiendo! ante! los! nuevos!

estilos! de! vida! de! la! población.! Otras! autoras! hablan! también! de! la!

decadencia! paulatina! de! los! piropos! en! España! (Fridlizius,! 2009),!

54! CHAPTER!1!
!

consecuencia! de! los! diversos! cambios! sociales! que! ha! ido!

experimentando! el! país! y! de! la! emancipación! de! la! mujer! (Astakhova,!

2014;!Venclovská,!2006).!!

Por!otra!parte,!respecto!a!la!idea!de!que!los!piropos!de!antaño!

eran!galantes!y!bonitos,!pero!que!en!los!actuales!predominan!los!de!tipo!

grosero,!encontramos!en!la!literatura!referencias!que!indican!que!ya!en!

el! pasado! se! daban! los! piropos! soeces,! y! que! ya! entonces! eran!

rechazados! por! las! mujeres! (Carvajal,! 2014;! SuárezOOrozco! y! Dundes,!

1990).!A!medio!camino,!hay!quienes!defienden!que!el!piropo!de!antaño!

ya!no!existe,!y!que!lo!que!nos!queda!es!una!versión!digamos!deteriorada!

de! lo! que! un! día! fue,! como! recoge! Carvajal! (2014).! Estas! opiniones! no!

parecen! sostenerse! con! los! datos! de! que! se! dispone,! pues! en! la!

literatura!encontramos!referencias!que!indican!que!ya!en!el!pasado!se!

consideraban! algunos! piropos! como! una! práctica! ofensiva! para! las!

mujeres!y!ya!entonces!eran!rechazados!(Carvajal,!2014;!SuárezOOrozco!y!

Dundes,!1990).!Un!hecho!bastante!desconocido,!es!que!en!la!España!de!

1928,!los!piropos!llegaron!a!parecerle!tan!vulgares!al!dictador!Primo!de!

Rivera,! que! durante! dos! años! se! llegó! a! prohibir! su! uso! en! la! calle,!

aunque!esta!ley!desaparecería!con!el!tiempo!(SuárezOOrozco!y!Dundes,!

1990).!

Independientemente! de! las! opiniones,! nos! encontramos! sin!

embargo!con!una!realidad:!las!mujeres!españolas!siguen!recibiendo!con!

frecuencia!piropos!por!la!calle,!como!cualquiera!de!las!mujeres!que!lea!

nuestro!trabajo!podría!refrendar!(Jiménez,!2015;!“Sobre!el!viejo”,!2015).!
 INTRODUCTION! 55!
! !

Un! problema! que! existe! es! la! falta! de! datos! que! nos! informen! de! la!

incidencia! del! piropo.! Pese! a! ello,! en! trabajos! informales! como! el!

estudio!“Ausonia”!(“Eres!maravillosa”,!2009),!seis!de!cada!diez!mujeres!

afirmaban! recibir!piropos!con!frecuencia,!y!en!otros!como!el!de!Presig!

(1998),!la!autora!documenta!el!fenómeno!a!través!de!dos!medios:!una!

entrevista!grupal!con!chicas!y!chicos!jóvenes!que!dan!cuenta!de!que!les!

ocurren,! y! mediante! la! observación! participativa.! Como! meramente!

anecdótico,! paseando! durante! una! hora! por! el! metro! de! Madrid,! la!

autora! recibió! un! total! de! cinco! piropos! distintos.! De! manera! similar,!

Jiménez! (2015),! una! periodista! española,! realizaba! este! mismo! año! su!

propio!experimento!paseando!por!las!calles!de!Madrid!y!Sevilla,!en!las!

cuales!recibió!muchas!insinuaciones!por!parte!de!hombres!que!registró!

a!través!de!una!cámara!oculta.!Parece!pues!que,!sin!poder!asegurar!si!la!

prevalencia!se!ha!visto!disminuida!como!muchos!defienden!o!no,!lo!que!

sí!sabemos!es!que!los!piropos!callejeros!no!han!dejado!de!existir.!!

2.!4.!El!Piropo!desde!la!Lingüística!

Hasta! el! momento,! casi! todos! los! trabajos! mencionados! en!

relación! con! el! piropo! pertenecen! al! ámbito! de! la! lingüística.! Aun! así,!

resulta! muy! interesante! conocer! ciertas! peculiaridades! del! fenómeno!

desde! esta! perspectiva,! pues! pueden! ayudar! a! entender! su! aceptación!

tanto! en! nuestro! país! como! en! otros! de! cultura! similar.! Así,! al! ser!

entrevistada! como! experta! en! lengua! española,! Esther! Forgas! (Seco,!

2011)! señala! una! serie! de! características! típicas! del! lenguaje! español,!
56! CHAPTER!1!
!

que! han! podido! contribuir! a! que! el! piropo! se! encuentre! enraizado! en!

nuestra! cultura.! La! primera,! hace! referencia! al! “carácter! expansivo! o!

extravertido! de! la! sociedad,! compartido! con! los! pueblos! del!

Mediterráneo,! que! lleva! a! un! uso! generalizado! de! la! exclamación! y! el!

apóstrofe”.! En! segundo! lugar,! Forgas! señala! “la! tendencia! a! la!

exageración! y! a! la! hipérbole! (“Me! hielo! de! frío”,! “me! muero! de! sed”),!

propia! de! la! lengua! española”.! Un! tercer! elemento! que! destaca! la!

autora,! sería! “la! tendencia! a! la! retórica! y! los! juegos! de! palabras.! En!

español! se! juega! con! el! lenguaje! (comparaciones! inéditas,! chistes,!

invención! de! nuevas! palabras),! se! toma! libertades! con! él”.! Por! último,!

dice! Forgas! que! “el! español! es! una! lengua! con! tendencia! metafórica.!

Junto! con! la! mayoría! de! lenguas! semíticas! y! mediterráneas,! en! España!

metaforizamos,! utilizamos! parábolas,! refranes...”.! Como! ejemplo! de!

metáfora! con! la! que! aludir! a! algo! que! literalmente! significa! otra! cosa,!

Forgas!cita!esta:!“Nena,!con!estas!pestañas!no!vayas!por!El!Retiro,!que!

están!de!poda”.!

A! su! vez,! el! modelo! de! la! cortesía! de! Brown! y! Levinson! (1987),!

una!teoría!pragmalingüística!que!aborda!la!manera!en!la!que!el!contexto!

influye! en! la! interpretación! del! significado,! podría! ayudar! a! entender!

esta!relativa!aceptación!del!piropo!en!el!contexto!hispano.!Dicha!teoría!

se! basa! en! la! noción! de! face! (imagen)! de! ! Goffmanm! (1967),! que! se!

refiere!al!valor!social!positivo!que!los!individuos!esperan!obtener!en!sus!

interacciones! sociales! con! los! demás.! Brown! y! Levinson! incorporan!

nuevos! elementos! a! las! ideas! de! Goffman,! y! al! concepto! de! imagen!
 INTRODUCTION! 57!
! !

positiva,! añaden! otra! faceta! diferencial:! la! negativa.! Así,! la! imagen!

positiva! se! refiere! al! deseo! de! ser! aceptado,! respetado! o! valorado! por!

los!otros!miembros!de!la!sociedad!de!la!que!se!forma!parte;!y!la!imagen!

negativa,! al! deseo! de! cada! individuo! de! que! sus! actos! no! se! vean!

impedidos!por!otros,!esto!es,!de!no!querer!ser!molestado!o!presionado!

por! otros,! de! poder! llegar! a! realizar! comportamientos! por! su! propia!

decisión,!o!de!que!no!invadan!su!territorio!personal.!Por!lo!tanto,!desde!

el!modelo!de!Brown!y!Levinson,!la!cortesía!verbal!se!consideraría!como!

una!serie!de!estrategias!orientadas!al!control!de!la!propia!imagen!de!los!

hablantes!(MartínezOCabeza,!1997).!!

Según!investigaciones!como!las!de!Haverkate!(2000),!la!mayoría!

de!las!culturas!pueden!dividirse!en!función!de!que!los!miembros!que!la!

componen!muestren!preferencia!por!la!expresión!de!cortesía!positiva!(a!

la!que!él!prefiere!denominar!“de!solidaridad”),!o!en!cambio!prefieran!la!

expresión!de!cortesía!negativa!(a!la!que!él!llama!“de!distanciamiento”).!

Haverkate! (2000)! en! su! investigación! sobre! el! habla! holandesa! y!

española! encontró! resultados! similares! a! los! que! encontró! Sifianou!

(1992)!con!el!habla!inglesa!y!griega:!la!cultura!española!(y!griega)!están!

orientadas!hacia!la!solidaridad!(positivas),!mientras!que!la!holandesa!(e!

inglesa)!lo!están!hacia!el!distanciamiento!(negativa).!!

Un! elogio! se! define! como! “una! alabanza! de! las! cualidades! y!

méritos!de!alguien!o!de!algo”!(Real!Academia!Española,!2014b).!Según!

Jang!(2011),!como!el!elogio!es!un!acto!que!busca!expresar!solidaridad!y!

aprecio! por! la! persona! que! lo! recibe,! elogiar! podría! considerarse! una!
58! CHAPTER!1!
!

estrategia! prototípica! de! la! cortesía! positiva.! En! este! marco,! las!

investigaciones!demuestran!que!los!españoles!dan!las!gracias!por!recibir!

un!cumplido,!no!así!los!estadounidenses!(De!Pablos,!2006),!y!de!forma!

similar!el!holandés!medio!no!acostumbra!a!hacer!ni!recibir!cumplidos,!ni!

los!sabe!responder!(Haverkate,!2003),!habiéndose!observado!reacciones!

similares!en!las!culturas!inglesa!o!escandinava!(Albelda!y!Briz,!2010).!!

Estos! enfoques! lingüísticoOculturales! pueden! ayudar! a!

comprender! las! reacciones! que! pueden! darse! ante! los! piropos! en! las!

culturas! hispanas.! En! las! culturas! anglosajonas! los! cumplidos! sobre! la!

apariencia!no!son!tan!comunes,!y!sería!lógico!esperar!que!algo!mucho!

más!extremo!como!son!los!piropos!callejeros,!comentarios!acerca!de!la!

apariencia! física! dichos! por! extraños! en! la! calle,! se! vean! claramente!

como! una! invasión! de! la! intimidad! o! del! espacio! personal! de! la! mujer,!

reflejando! que! las! mujeres! están! siendo! molestadas! o! presionadas! por!

otros! (algo! esencial! en! la! cortesía! negativa! o! de! distanciamiento).! En!

cambio,!en!las!culturas!hispanas!el!piropo!entraría!de!lleno!dentro!de!la!

cortesía! positiva! o! de! solidaridad,! pues! en! cierto! sentido! fortalece! el!

deseo! de! ser! aceptado,! respetado! o! valorado.! La! globalización! y! la!

progresiva!extensión!en!el!mundo!occidental!de!las!mismas!ideologías!y!

patrones! culturales,! procedentes! en! su! mayor! parte! del! mundo!

anglosajón,!pueden!estar!haciendo!que!las!culturas!de!cortesía!positiva!

como! la! hispana! estén! cambiando! en! la! dirección! de! la! cortesía!

negativa,! pero! aún! pueden! tener! en! estas! culturas! mucha! importancia!

su! tradición! de! cortesía! positiva.! El! piropo,! incluso! en! su! forma! más!
 INTRODUCTION! 59!
! !

soez,! podría! así! ser! interpretado! por! su! receptor/a! como! un! cierto!

elogio! por! parte! de! la! otra! persona,! y! como! hemos! señalado,! para! los!

miembros!de!estas!culturas!suele!ser!más!difícil!rechazar!los!elogios!que!

para!los!miembros!de!culturas!de!cortesía!negativa.!

2.!5.!Reacciones!ante!Distintos!Tipos!de!Piropos!

Podemos! encontrar! piropos! callejeros! de! diferente! naturaleza,!

que! aunque! difieran! entre! sí,! comparten! sin! embargo! centrarse!

fundamentalmente! en! el! físico! y! en! tratar! a! la! mujer! como! un! objeto,!

generalmente!de!índole!sexual.!Aunque!se!podrían!hacer!agrupaciones!

de! diferentes! tipos! de! piropos,! de! manera! global! podríamos! distinguir!

entre!dos!categorías!fundamentales:!unos!de!carácter!más!soez,!y!otros!

de! corte! más! “galante”.! Esto,! al! menos,! es! lo! que! de! forma! repetida!

aparece! en! las! discusiones! y! debates! sobre! los! piropos! habidos! en!

España! en! los! últimos! años.! Así,! aunque! la! mayoría! de! mujeres! afirma!

rechazar! los! piropos! de! tipo! más! vulgar,! los! de! naturaleza! más! suave!

parecen! generar! reacciones! algo! más! ambiguas! o! ambivalentes,! pues!

hay!mujeres!que!afirman!disfrutarlos,!mientras!que!otras!los!consideran!

una! muestra! de! sexismo! o! incluso! de! agresión! de! género! (Fridlizius,!

2009;! GaytanOSánchez,! 2009;! Venclovská,+ 2006).+ Recientemente+ en+

España!surgía!cierta!polémica!sobre!el!piropo,!pues!algunas!mujeres!con!

puestos! de! responsabilidad! pública! y! política! expresaban! su! rechazo! a!

cualquier! tipo! de! piropo,! reacción! ante! la! cual! otras! manifestaban!

oponerse!a!los!piropos!groseros!pero!defendían!los!que!consideran!más!
60! CHAPTER!1!
!

suaves! (“Eres! maravillosa”,! 2009;! Jiménez,! 2015;! ¿Piropos! o! acoso?,!

2005).!

3.!Nuestro!Tabajo:!Piropos!y!Cosificación!

! Cuando!decidimos!estudiar!los!piropos!españoles!como!forma!de!

cosificación! sexual,! nos! encontramos! en! primer! lugar! con! la! necesidad!

de!contar!con!un!instrumento!adecuado!al!contexto!español!para!medir!

autoOcosificación.! Por! ello,! nuestro! primer! paso! al! comienzo! de! esta!

Tesis! Doctoral! fue! crear! la! versión! española! de! la! denominada!

Objectified! Body! Consciousness! Scale! (OBCS)! (McKinley! y! Hyde,! 1996).!

Esta! es! la! razón! por! la! que! nuestra! primera! serie! de! estudios! está!

dedicada! al! proceso! que! seguimos! hasta! llegar! a! tener! el! instrumento!

que!hemos!utilizado!a!lo!largo!de!nuestras!investigaciones.!

La! segunda! cuestión! que! abordamos! fue! cómo! aproximarnos! al!

estudio!de!los!piropos.!No!queríamos!obviar!la!naturaleza!espontánea!y!

el!contexto!público!en!el!que!ocurre,!así!como!el!carácter!situacional!del!

piropo.! Como! hemos! indicado! en! esta! introducción,! ha! habido! dos!

formas!claramente!diferenciadas!de!aproximarse!a!la!autoOcosificación:!

la! primera! ha! consistido! en! pedirles! a! las! mujeres! que! recuerden! sus!

experiencias!de!cosificación!o!estimar!la!frecuencia!o!intensidad!con!las!

que!se!han!sentido!cosificadas!en!un!periodo!de!tiempo!reciente!(e.g.!en!

el! último! año);! la! segunda! –mucho! menos! exploradaO! ha! consistido! en!

exponer!a!las!mujeres!a!situaciones!cosificadoras.!Dada!la!naturaleza!del!

piropo,! hemos! optado! en! nuestra! investigación! por! esa! segunda!

 INTRODUCTION! 61!
! !

perspectiva,! y! desechamos! la! idea! de! hacer! a! las! mujeres! recordar! sus!

propias!!experiencias!recibiendo!piropos!de!extraños.!!

Como!hemos!visto,!algunas!de!las!situaciones!o!conductas!que!se!

han!definido!como!cosificación!sexual!incluyen!“la!mirada!al!cuerpo!de!

las! mujeres,! los! comentarios! sexuales! sobre! sus! cuerpos,! los! silbidos! o!

pitidos! con! el! coche,! ser! fotografiadas! con! un! teléfono! móvil,! ser!

expuestas!a!imágenes!sexuales!en!los!medios!o!pornografía,!el!acoso!y!

la!violencia!sexual!y!la!violación”!(Calogero,!2011,!p.!34).!Sin!embargo,!

son! pocas! las! investigaciones! en! las! que! se! realice! una! exposición!

directa! a! dichas! situaciones.! Una! excepción! podría! considerarse! el!

trabajo! reciente! de! Wiener,! Gervais,! Allen! y! Marquez! (2013),! quienes!

realizaron! un! experimento! de! laboratorio! en! el! que! un! cómplice! del!

investigador,! en! el! contexto! de! una! supuesta! entrevista! de! trabajo,!

observaba!hasta!en!cuatro!ocasiones!los!pechos!de!las!participantes,!y!al!

finalizar! la! entrevista! emitía! un! comentario! relacionado! con! la!

apariencia! de! los! mismos.! Dada! la! naturaleza! del! piropo! callejero! (por!

extraños,!en!la!calle)!y!su!dificultad!para!recrear!experimentalmente!una!

situación!similar!con!cierto!grado!de!credibilidad,!en!nuestros!estudios!

no!se!expone!directamente!a!las!mujeres!a!una!situación!cosificadora!de!

piropo,! sino! que! se! utiliza! metodología! de! escenario! para! recrear! un!

piropo!emitido!por!un!extraño!en!un!espacio!público.!Concretamente,!a!

lo!largo!de!nuestros!estudios!indagamos!sobre!los!efectos!psicosociales!

que! pueden! tener! los! piropos! tanto! de! tipo! soez,! como! los! de! tipo!

galante!o!halagador.!Como!ya!vimos,!son!estos!últimos!los!que!suscitan!
62! CHAPTER!1!
!

más! polémica! en! nuestra! sociedad,! y! nos! parecen! de! interés!

especialmente! por! el! cierto! paralelismo! que! guardan! con! el! sexismo!

benévolo!(Glick!y!Fiske,!1996),!pues!reflejan!una!visión!supuestamente!

positiva!de!la!mujer,!pero!tendenciosa,!en!el!caso!del!sexismo!benévolo!

limitándola! a! los! roles! de! género! tradicionales! y! en! el! caso! del! piropo,!

cosificándola.!

De! forma! paralela,! los! piropos! también! se! relacionan! con! el! ya!

comentado! o! street! harassment! o! stranger! harassment,! que! se! define!

como! “el! acoso! (sexual)! hacia! las! mujeres,! en! lugares! públicos,!

perpetrado! por! hombres! desconocidos”! e! “incluye! tanto!

comportamientos!verbales!como!no!verbales,!tales!como!los!silbidos,!las!

miradas! lascivas,! los! guiños,! el! ser! agarrada! o! pellizcada,! y! los!

comentarios!dirigidos!a!las!mujeres!o!hechos!en!su!presencia,!que!son!

normalmente!de!índole!sexual!y!focalizados!en!su!apariencia”!(Bowman,!

1993,! p.! 523).! Esto! es,! el! street! harassment,! es! cometido! por! hombres!

que! no! son! conocidos! de! la! víctima! (i.e.,! no! un! compañero! de! trabajo,!

amigo,! familiar! o! conocido),! y! ocurre! en! lugares! públicos! (Fairchild! y!

Rudman,!2008).!Aunque!la!cosificación!sexual!por!parte!de!extraños!en!

espacios!públicos!es!más!habitual!que!la!cosificación!ejercida!por!parte!

de! personas! conocidas! (Gardner,! 1995;! Macmillan,! Nierobisz,! y! Welsh,!

2000),! a! día! de! hoy! sigue! siendo! escaso! el! número! de! investigaciones!

dedicadas!a!indagar!sobre!este!tema!(Calogero,!2011,!p.!222).!Este!viene!

a!ser!otro!motivo!importante!para!haber!dedicado!nuestros!estudios!a!

indagar! sobre! los! piropos,! que! son! conductas! cosificadoras,! realizadas!

 INTRODUCTION! 63!
! !

por!hombres!a!mujeres!en!lugares!públicos,!pero!sobre!las!que!a!día!de!

hoy!no!teníamos!apenas!información!desde!una!perspectiva!psicológica!

o!psicosocial.!
64! CHAPTER!1!
!

Referencias!

Albelda,! M.,! y! Briz,! M.! A.! (2010).! Aspectos! pragmáticos.! Cortesía! y!

atenuantes! verbales! en! las! dos! orillas! a! través! de! muestras!

orales.! En! M.! AlezaOIzquierdo! y! J.! M.! EnguitaOUtrilla.! (Eds.),! La!

lengua! española! en! América:! normas! y! usos! actuales.! Valencia:!

Universitat!de!València.!Recuperado!de:!http://www.uv.es/aleza!

Bartky,! S.! L.! (1990).! Femininity! and! domination:! Studies! in! the!

phenomenology!of!oppression.!New!York:!Routledge.!!

Beinhauer,!W.!(1973).!"El!piropo".!El!humorismo!en!el!español!hablado.!

Madrid:!Gredos.!

Blascovich,!J.,!Brennan,!K.,!Tomaka,!J.,!Kelsey,!R.!M.,!Hughes,!P.,!Coad,!

M.! L.,! y! Adlin,! R.! (1992).! Affect! intensity! and! cardiac! arousal.!

Journal!of!Personality!and!Social!Psychology,!63,!164O174.!

Bowman,!C.!G.!(1993).!Street!harassment!and!the!informal!ghettoization!

of!women.!Harvard!Law!Review,!106,!517O580.!

Breines,!J.!G.,!Crocker,!J.,!y!Garcia,!J.!A.!(2008).!SelfOobjectification!and!

wellObeing! in! women’s! daily! lives.! Personality! and! Social!

Psychology!Bulletin,!34,!583O598.!

!doi:10.1177/0146167207313727!

Calogero,! R.! M.! (2004).! A! test! of! Objectification! Theory:! The! effects! of!

the! male! gaze! on! appearance! concerns! in! college! women.!

Psychology!of!Women!Quarterly,!28,!16O21.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O!

6402.2004.00118.x!
 INTRODUCTION! 65!
! !

Calogero,!R.!M.!(2011).!Operationalizing!selfOobjectification:!Assessment!

and!related!methodological!issues.!In!R.!M.!Calogero,!S.!TantleffO

Dunn,! y! J.! K.! Thompson! (Eds.),! SelfNObjectification! in! women:!

Causes,! consequences,! and! counteractions! (pp.! 23O49).!

Washington! DC:! American! Psychological! Association.!

doi:10.1037/12304O002!!

Calogero,!R.!M.,!Davis,!W.!N.,!y!Thompson,!J.!K.!(2005).!The!role!of!selfO

objectification!in!the!experience!of!women!with!eating!disorders.!

Sex!Roles,!52,!43O50.!doi:!10.1007/s11199O005O1192O9!

Calogero,! R.! M.,! Herbozo,! S.,! y! Thompson,! K.! (2009).! Complimentary!

weightism:! The! potential! costs! of! appearanceOrelated!

commentary! for! women’s! selfOobjectification.! Psychology! of!

Women! Quarterly,! 33,! 120–! 132.! doi:10.1111/j.1471O

6402.2008.01479.x!

Calogero,!R.M.,!y!Pina,!A.!(2011).!Body!guilt:!Preliminary!evidence!for!a!

further! subjective! experience! of! selfOobjectification.! Sex! Roles,!

35,!428O440.!doi:10.1037/a0021864!

Carr,! E.! R.,! y! Szymanski,! D.! M.! (2010).! Sexual! objectification! and!

substance! abuse! in! young! adult! women.! The! Counseling!

Psychologist,!20,!1O28.!doi:10.1177/0011000010378449!

Carvajal,!S.!(2014).!El!piropo!callejero:!acción!política!y!ciudadana!(Tesis!

de!Máster,!Universidad!Andina!Simón!Bolivar,!Sede!Ecuador).!

Recuperado![de:!
66! CHAPTER!1!
!

http://repositorio.uasb.edu.ec/bitstream/10644/4094/1/T1460O

MECOCarvajalOEl%20piropo.pdf!

Cash,! T.! F.,! Maikkula,! C.! L.,! y! Yamamiya,! Y.! (2004).! "Baring! the! body! in!

the! bedroom":! Body! image,! sexual! selfOschemas,! and! sexual!

functioning!among!college!women!and!men.!Electronic!Journal!of!

Human!Sexuality,!7.!Recuperado!de!!

www.ejhs.org/volume7/bodyimage.html!!

Claudat,! K.,! y! Warren,! C.! S.! (2014).! SelfOobjectification,! body! selfO

consciousness!during!sexual!activities,!and!sexual!satisfaction!in!

college!women.!Body!Image,!11,!509O515.!doi:!!

! 10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.07.006!

Cruz,! S.! (2015,! 23! Julio).! Un! año! sin! piropos! en! Bélgica.! Info! Libre.!

Recuperado!de:!!

! http://infolibre.es/noticias/ctxt/2015/07/23/un_ano_sin_piropo

s_belgica_35809_1601.!

Csikszentmihalyi,! M.! (1982).! Toward! a! psychology! of! optimal!

experience.!En!L.!Wheeler!(Ed.),!Review!of!personality!and!social!

psychology.!BeverlyHills,!CA:!Sage.!!

Csikszentmihalyi,!M.!(1990).!Flow.!New!York:!Harper!Perennial.!!

Daubenmier,!J.!J.!(2005).!The!relationship!of!yoga,!body!awareness,!and!

body! responsiveness! to! selfOobjectification! and! disordered!

eating.! Psychology! of! Women! Quarterly,! 29,! 207–219.! doi:10.!

1111/j.1471O6402.2005.00183.x!
 INTRODUCTION! 67!
! !

Darwin,! C.! (1965).! The! expression! of! emotion! in! man! and! animals.%

Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press.!(Trabajo!original!publicado!

en!1872).!

de! Beauvoir,! S.! (2000).! El! segundo! sexo.! Madrid:! Cátedra.! (Trabajo!

original!publicado!en!1952).!

De!Pablos,!C.!(2006).!La!enseñanza!de!aspectos!sociopragmáticos!en!el!

aula! de! ELE.! En! Álvarez,! A.! et! al.! (Eds.),! Actas! del! XVI! Congreso!

Internacional! de! ASELE! (515O519).! Oviedo:! Universidad! de!

Oviedo.!Libro!de!abstracts!recuperado!de:!!

http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/16/

16_0513.pdf!

Diosdado,!E.!(1996).!!Los!mejores!piropos.!Barcelona:!Edicomunicación.!

!“Eres! maravillosa”,! el! piropo! mejor! recibido! y! el! que! más! gusta! a! las!

españolas.! (2009,! 29! Enero).! 20! minutos.! Recuperado! de:!

http://www.20minutos.es/noticia/348350/0/piropos/estudio/es

pana/#xtor=ADO15&xts=467263!

Fairchild,! K.,! y! Rudman,! L.! (2008).! Everyday! stranger! harassment! and!

women’s! objectification.! Social! Justice! Research,! 21,! 338–357.!

doi:10.1007/s11211O008O0073O0!

Ferreras,!C.!(2015,!15!Enero).!Quieren!prohibir!el!piropo.!La!Opinión!de!

Zamora.!Recuperado!de:!!

http://www.laopiniondezamora.es/opinion/2015/01/15/quieren

OprohibirOpiropo/815536.html!
68! CHAPTER!1!
!

Fredrickson,! B.,! y! Roberts,! T.! (1997).! Objectification! Theory:! Toward!

understanding! women´s! lived! experiences! and! mental! health!

risks.! Psychology! of! Women! Quarterly,! 21,! 173O206.!

doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.1997.tb00108.x!!

Fredrickson,! B.,! Roberts,! T.,! Noll,! S.,! Quinn,! D.,! y! Twenge,! J.! M.! (1998).!

That! swimsuit! becomes! you:! Sex! differences! in! selfO

objectification,!restrained!eating,!and!math!performance.!Journal!

of!Personality!and!Social!Psychology,!1,!269O284.!!

! doi:10.1037/0022O3514.75.1.269!!

Fridlizius,! N.! (2009).! Me! gustaría! ser! baldosa…Un! estudio! cualitativo!

sobre!el!uso!actual!de!los!piropos!callejeros!en!España!(Doctoral!

dissertation,! Göteborgs! Universitet).! Recuperado! de:!

https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/21649?mode=full!

Gapinski,! K.! D.,! Brownell,! K.! D.,! y! LaFrance,! M.! (2003).! Body!!

objectification!and!fat!talk:!Effects!on!emotion,!motivation,!and!

cognitive! performance.! Sex! Roles,! 48,! 377–388.!

doi:1023516209973!!

Gardner,! C.! B.! (1995).! Passing! by:! Gender! and! public! harassment.!

Berkeley,!CA:!University!of!California!Press.!!

Gay,! R.! K.,! y! Castano,! E.! (2010).! My! body! or! my! mind:! The! impact! of!

state! and! trait! objectification! on! women’s! cognitive! resources.!

European! Journal! of! Social! Psychology,! 40,! 695–703.!

doi:10.1002/ejsp.731!!

GaytanOSánchez,! P.! (2009).! Del! piropo! al! desencanto.! Un! estudio!

 INTRODUCTION! 69!
! !

sociológico.! México:! Universidad! Autónoma! Metropolitana!

Unidad!Azcapotzalco.!

Gervais,!S.!J.,!Vescio,!T.!K.,!y!Allen,!J.!(2011).!When!what!you!see!is!what!

you! get:! The! consequences! of! the! objectifying! gaze! for! women!

and!men.!Psychology!of!Women!Quarterly,!35,!5–17.!

!doi:10.1177/0361684310386121!!

Glick,! P.,! y! Fiske,! S.! T.! (1996).! The! ambivalent! sexism! inventory:!

differentiating! hostile! and! benevolent! sexism.! Journal! of!

Personality!and!Social!Psychology,!10,!491–512.!!

! doi:10.1037/0022O3514.70.3.491!

Goffman,! E.! (1967).! Interaction! ritual:! Essays! on! faceNtoNface! behavior.!

New!York:!Pantheon!Books.!

Grabe,! S.,! y! Hide,! J.! S.! (2009).! Body! objectification,! MTV! videos! and!

psychological! outcomes! among! female! adolescents.! Journal! of!

Applied! Social! Psychology,! 39,! 2840O2858.! doi:10.1111/j.1559O

1816.2009.00552.x!

Grabe,!S.,!Hyde,!J.!S.!y!Lindberg,!S.!M.!(2007).!Body!objectification!and!

depression! in! adolescents:! The! role! of! gender,! shame! and!

rumination.!Psychology!of!Women!Quarterly,!31,!164O175.!!

! doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.2007.00350.x!

Gruenfeld,! D.,! Inesi,! M.! E.,! Magee,! J.,! y! Galinsky,! A.! (2008).! Power! and!

objectification!of!social!targets.!Journal!of!Personality!and!Social!

Psychology,!95,!111O127.!doi:!10.1037/0022O3514.95.1.111!!
70! CHAPTER!1!
!

Lewis,!H.!B.!(1971).!Shame!and!guilt!in!neurosis.!New!York:!International!

Universities!Press.!!

Haverkate,! H.! (2000).! Estrategias! de! cortesía.! Análisis! intercultural.!

Forma!y!Función,!13,!17O30.!Recuperado!de:!!

! http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/07/

07_0043.pdf!

Jang,!J.!S.!(2011).!Cortesía!sociocultural!en!las!sociedades!medellinense!

y!japonesa:!Una!introducción.!Íkala,!revista!de!lenguaje!y!cultura,!

16,!119O157.!Recuperado!de:!!

! http://www.academia.edu/825280/Cortes%C3%ADa_sociocultur

al_en_las_sociedades_medellinense_y_japonesa_una_introducci

ón!

Jiménez,! S.! (2015,! 4! Julio).! Así! se! vive! un! día! sufriendo! piropos.! El!

Mundo.!Recuperado!de:!!

! http://www.elmundo.es/espana/2015/07/04/5596e707268e3eb

a2b8b459a.html!

Kozee,!H.!B.,!Tylka,!T.!L.,!AugustusOHorvath,!C.!L.,!y!Denchik,!A.!(2007).!

Development! and! psychometric! evaluation! of! the! interpersonal!

sexual!objectification!scale.!Psychology!of!Women!Quarterly,!31,!

176–189.!doi:!10.1111/j.1471O6402.2007.00351.x!

La!presidenta!del!Observatorio!contra!la!Violencia!de!Género!pide!que!

se! erradique! el! piropo! [The! president! of! the! Observatory! of!

Violence! against! women! ask! for! the! eradication! of! piropo].!

(2015,!January!9).!El!Periódico![The!Newspaper].!Retrieved!from:!!
 INTRODUCTION! 71!
! !

! http://www.elperiodico.com/es/noticias/sociedad/observatorioO

contraOviolenciaOgeneroOpideOvetarOpiropoO3838083!

Lazarus,! R.! S.! (1991).! Emotion! and! adaptation.! New! York:! Oxford!

University!Press.!!!

Loughnan,!S.,!Pina,!A.,!Vasquez,!E.!A.,!y!Puvia,!E.!(2013).!Sexual!!

! objectification! increases! rape! victim! blame! and! decreases!

perceived! suffering.! Psychology! of! Women! Quarterly,! 37,! 455O

461.!doi:10.1177/0361684313485718!

Lewis,!M.!(1992).!Shame:!The!exposed!self:!New!York:!Free!Press.!!

Macmillan,!R.,!Nierobisz,!A.,!y!Welsh,!S.!(2000).!Experiencing!the!streets:!

Harassment!and!perceptions!of!safety!among!women.!Journal!of!

Research!in!Crime!and!Delinquency,!37,!306O322.!!

! doi:10.1177/0022427800037003003!

Marx,!K.!(1959).!!El!Capital.!México:!Fondo!de!cultura!Económica.!

!(Trabajo!original!de!1897).!

McKinley,! N.! M.! (1998).! Gender! differences! in! undergraduates’! body!

esteem:! The! mediating! effect! of! objectified! body! consciousness!

and!actual/ideal!weight!discrepancy.!Sex!Roles,!39,113–123.!!

! doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.1996.tb00467.x!

McKinley,! N.! M.! (1999).! Women! and! objectified! body! consciousness:!

Mothers’! and! daughters’! body! experience! in! cultural,!

developmental,!and!familial!context.!Developmental!Psychology,!

35,!760–769.!doi:10.1037/0012O1649.35.3.760!!
72! CHAPTER!1!
!

McKinley,! N.,! y! Hyde,! J.! S.! (1996).! The! Objectified! Body! Consciousness!

Scale.! Development! and! validation.! Psychology! of! Women!

Quarterly,!20,!181O215.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.1996.tb00467.x!

Mercurio,! A.! E.,! y! Landry,! L.! J.! (2008).! SelfOobjectification! and! wellO!

being:! The! impact! of! selfOobjectification! on! women’s! overall!

sense!of!selfOworth!and!life!satisfaction.!Sex!Roles,!58,!458!–!466.!

doi:10.1007/!s11199O007O9357O3!!

MinerORubino,! K.,! Twenge,! J.! M.,! y! Fredrickson,! B.! L.! (2002).! Trait! selfO

objectification! in! women:! Affective! and! personality! correlates.!

Journal!of!Research!in!Personality,!36,!147–172.!!

! http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2001.2343!

Moradi,! B.,! Dirks,! D.,! y! Matteson,! A.! V.! (2005).! Roles! of! sexual!

objectification! experiences! and! internalization! of! standards! of!

beauty!in!eating!disorder!symptomatology:!A!test!and!extension!

of! objectification! theory.! Journal! of! Counseling! Psychology,! 52,!

420–428.!!

Muehlenkamp,! J.! J.,! y! SarisOBaglama,! R.! N.! (2002).! SelfOobjectification!

and!its!psychological!outcomes!for!college!women.!Psychology!of!

Women! Quarterly,! 26,! 371O379.! doi:10.1111/1471O6402.t01O1O

00076!!

Muehlenkamp,! J.! J.,! Swanson,! J.! D.,! y! Brausch,! A.! M.! (2005).! SelfO!

objectification,! risk! taking,! and! selfOharm! in! college! women.!

Psychology!of!Women!Quarterly,!29,!24!–32.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O

6402.2005.00164.x!
 INTRODUCTION! 73!
! !

Noll,!S.!M.,!y!Fredrickson,!B.!L.!(1998).!A!mediational!model!linking!selfO

objectification,! body! shame,! and! disordered! eating.! Psychology!

of!Women!Quarterly,!22,!623–636.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O!

! 6402.1998.tb00181.x!

Ohman,! A.! (1993).! Fear! and! anxiety! as! emotional! phenomena:! Clinical!

phenomenology,! evolutionary! perspectives,! and! informationO

processing! mechanisms.! In! M.! Lewis! y! J.! M.! Haviland! (Eds.),!

Handbook!of!emotions!(pp.!511O636).!New!York:!Guilford.!!!

¿Piropos!o!acoso?!(2005,!4!Mayo).!20!minutos.!Recuperado!de:!!

! http://www.20minutos.es/carta/21012/0/piropos/acoso/!

Posadas,!C.!(n.d.).!Un!piropo,!por!favor.![Web!log!post].!Recuperado!de:!

http://www.carmenposadas.net/noticiasOhome.php?offset=125!

Preisig,! G.! (1998).! Una! investigación! sobre! el! piropo! español! (Tesis!

Doctoral,! The! University! of! British! Columbia).! Recuperado! de!

https://circle.ubc.ca/handle.!

Quinn,! D.! M.,! Kallen,! R.! W.,! Twenge,! J.! M.,! y! Fredrickson,! B.! L.! (2006).!

The! disruptive! effect! of! selfOobjectification! on! performance.!

Psychology!of!Women!Quarterly,!30,!59–64.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O!

! 6402.2006.00262.x!

Real! Academia! Española.! (2014).! Piropo.! En! Diccionario! de! la! lengua!

española!(23rd!ed.).!Madrid,!Spain.!Recuperado!de:!!

! htttp://buscon.rae.es/srv/search?id=Qnd2pX8okE2x5wMBqzWG!
74! CHAPTER!1!
!

Roberts,!T.,!y!Gettman,!J.!Y.!(2004).!Mere!exposure:!Gender!differences!

in! the! negative! effects! of! priming! a! state! of! selfOobjectification.!

Sex!Roles,!51,!17O27.!doi:10.1023/b:sers.0000032306.20462.22!

Schreier,!J.!(2005).!“Quien!fuera!mecánico...!un!estudio!sociopragmático!

sobre! la! aceptación! social! del! piropo”.! Revista! Internacional! de!

Lingüística!Iberoamericana,!5,!31O47.!

Sifianou,! M.! (1992).! Politeness! phenomena! in! England! and! Greece.! A!

crossNcultural!perspective.!Oxford:!Clarendon!Press.!

Silberstein,L.! R.,! StriegelOMoore,! R.,! y! Rodin,! J.! (1987).! Feeling! fat:! A!

woman’s! shame.! In! H.! B.! Lewis! (Ed.),! The! role! of! shame! in!

symptom!formation!(pp.89O108).!Hillsdale,!NJ:!Erlbaum.!!

Sobre!el!viejo!(no)!arte!de!los!piropos.!(2015,!17!Marzo).!Recuperado!de:!

http://pareceamorperonoloes.com/tag/piropo/!

Soukkio,!M.!(1998).!El!Piropo.!Un!estudio!del!flirteo!callejero!en!la!lengua!

española!(Tesina!de!Máster,!University!of!Helsinki).!!

Stapley,! J.! C.,! y! Haviland,! J.! M.! (1989).! Beyond! depression:! Gender!

differences! in! normal! adolescents’! emotional! experiences.! Sex!

Roles,!20,!295O308.!!!

Steer,! A.,! y! Tiggemann,! M.! (2008).! The! role! of! selfOobjectification! in!

women's! sexual! functioning.! Journal! of! Social! and! Clinical!

Psychology,!27,!205O225.!doi:10.1521/jscp.2008.27.3.205!!

SuárezOOrozco,!M.,!y!Dundes,!A.!(1984).!The!piropo!and!the!dual!image!

of! women! in! the! SpanishOspeaking! world.! Journal! of! Latin!

American!Lore,!10,!111O33.!
 INTRODUCTION! 75!
! !

Sust,! I.! (2015,! January! 25).! Me! gusta! [I! like! it].! El! Periódico! [The!

Newspaper].!Recuperado!de:!!

! http://www.elperiodico.com/es/noticias/opinion/gustaO3879684!

Tiggemann,!M.,!y!Kuring,!J.!K.!(2004).!The!role!of!body!objectification!in!

disordered!eating!and!depressed!mood.!British!Journal!of!Clinical!

Psychology,!43,!299–311.!doi:10.1348/0144665031752925!!

Tylka,!T.!L,!y!Hill,!M.!S.!(2004).!Objectification!theory!as!it!relates!to!!

! disordered!eating!among!college!women.!Sex!Roles,!51,!719O730.!

doi:10.1037/0022O0167.51.3.314!!

Venclovská,! N.! (2006).! Los! piropos! españoles.! (Tesis! Doctoral,!

Masarykova!Univerzita).!Recuperado!de:!!

! http://is.muni.cz.th/75447/ff_b/bakalinek.pdf!

Wiener,! R.! L.,! Gervais,! S.! J.,! Allen,! J.,! y! Marquez,! A.! (2013).! Eye! of! the!

beholder:! Effects! of! perspective! and! sexual! objectification! on!

harassment! judgments.! Psychology,! Public! Policy,! and! Law,! 19,!

206O221.!doi:10.1037/a0028497!

¿Son!estos!piropos!una!invasión!a!la!intimidad!de!la!mujer?!Te!dejamos!

20!para!que!opines…!(2015,!9!Enero).!Europa!Press.!Recuperado!

de:! http://www.europapress.es/sociedad/noticiaOsonOpiroposO

invasionOintimidadOmujerOteOdejamosO20OopinesO

20150109204934.html!

Wollstonecraft,! M.! (1995).! A! vindication! of! the! rights! of! men! and! a!

vindication! of! the! rights! of! woman! and! hints! [Adobe! Digital!

Editions!version].!Trabajo!original!de!1792).!
!

!
 ! !

EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Estudios empíricos
!

!
 ! !

Chapter 2:

Spanish version of the OBCS:

A self-objectification measure
 !

!
 !

Spanish!Version!of!the!“Objectified!Body!Consciousness!

Scale”!(OBCS):!Results!from!Two!Samples!of!Female!

University!Students1!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
1
!This! article! has! been! accepted! for! publication! in:! MoyaOGarófano,! A.,!

Megías,!J.L.,!RodríguezOBailón,!R.!y!Moya,!M.!(in!press).!Spanish!Version!

of!the!“Objectified!Body!Consciousness!Scale”!(OBCS):!Results!from!Two!

Samples!of!Female!University!Students.!Revista!de!Psicología!Social.!
!

Abstract!

SelfOobjectification! happens! when! people! internalize! a! view! of!

themselves! as! an! object! or! collection! of! body! parts.! Two! studies! were!

conducted! to! validate! the! Spanish! version! of! the! “Objectified! Body!

Consciousness! Scale”! (OBCS)! (McKinley! &! Hyde,! 1996).! This! scale!

assesses! selfOobjectification! through! three! components:! body!

surveillance,!body!shame,!and!appearance!control!beliefs!in!women.!In!

Study! 1! and! Study! 2,! 218! and! 201! female! undergraduate! students!

respectively,! answered! the! Spanish! version! of! this! scale! and! other!

related! measures.! In! Study! 2,! they! also! reported! their! emotions! after!

being! exposed! to! an! objectifying! scenario.! The! three! subscales! of! the!

Spanish! version! of! the! OBCS! showed! acceptable! indices! of! internal!

consistency! (ranging! between! α! =! .68! to! .84),! and! confirmatory! factor!

analysis! showed! a! threeOfactor! solution! as! the! most! appropriate.!

Adequate! convergent! validity! was! found! with! respect! to! the! SelfO

Objectification! Questionnaire! (SOQ)! and! other! variables! such! as! selfO

esteem,! otherOdirectedness,! hostile! sexism,! and! enjoyment! of!

sexualization.! These! findings! suggest! that! the! Spanish! version! of! the!

OBCS! scale! is! a! satisfactory! measure! of! college! women’s! selfO

objectification.!

Keywords:! women,!selfOobjectification,!OBCS,!psychometric!properties,!
Spain
 SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 83!
! ! ! !

Resumen!

La! autoOcosificación! ocurre! cuando! las! personas! internalizan! una!

perspectiva! de! sí! mismas! como! objetos! o! colecciones! de! partes! del!

cuerpo.! Realizamos! dos! estudios! para! validar! la! versión! española! de! la!

“Objectified!Body!Consciousness!Scale”!(OBCS)!(McKinley!y!Hyde,!1996).!

Esta!escala!evalúa!la!autoOcosificación!a!través!de!tres!componenentes:!

la!Vigilancia!Corporal,!la!Vergüenza!por!el!cuerpo!y!las!Creencias!sobre!

el! Control! de! la! Apariencia! en! mujeres.! En! el! Estudio! 1,! y! el! Estudio! 2,!

218!y!201!estudiantes!universitarias!respectivamente,!contestarion!a!la!

versión!española!de!la!escala!y!a!otras!medidas!relacionadas.!!Además,!

en! el! Estudio! 2,! informaron! de! sus! emociones! tras! ser! expuestas! a! un!

escenario!cosificador.!Las!tres!subescalas!de!la!OBCS!mostraron!indices!

de! consistencia! interna! adecuados! (oscilando! entre! α! =.! 68! y! 84).! El!

análisis! factorial! confirmatorio! mostró! a! su! vez! que! la! solución! de! tres!

factores! era! la! más! apropiada.! También! se! encontró! una! adecuada!

validez! convergente! en! relación! al! Self! Objectification! Questionnaire!

(SOQ).! A! su! vez,! se! hallaron! evidencias! de! validez! basada! en! las!

relaciones!entre!las!puntuaciones!de!la!OBCS!y!variables!como!la!autoO

estima,! la! autoOmonitorización,! el! sexismo! hostil! y! el! disfrute! de! la!

sexualización.! Estos! hallazgos! sugieren! que! la! OBCS! es! una! medida!

adecuada! para! evaluar! la! autoOcosificación! femenina! en! mujeres!

españolas.!!

Palabras!clave:!women,!selfOobjectification,!OBCS,!psychometric!!

properties,!Spain!
84! CHAPTER!2!
!

La! sociedad! de! consumo! nos! muestra! continuamente! ejemplos!

de!cómo!el!valor!de!las!personas!a!menudo!se!estima!en!función!de!lo!

útiles!que!podemos!llegar!a!ser.!En!el!caso!de!las!mujeres,!un!aspecto!de!

la! utilidad! con! la! que! son! vistas! está! relacionado! con! su! sexualidad,! es!

decir,!con!ser!consideradas!objetos!sexuales!(Gruenfeld,!Inesi,!Magee,!y!

Galinsky,!2008;!Luengas!y!VelandiaOMorales,!2012).!

Pese!a!que!la!cosificación!sexual!de!la!mujer!no!es!una!práctica!

novedosa,! el! estudio! empírico! de! este! fenómeno! es! relativamente!

reciente.! En! 1997! Fredrickson! y! Roberts! enunciaron! la! teoría! de! la!

cosificación! sexual! (sexual! objectification! theory).! Según! las! autoras,! el!

“factor!común!a!todas!las!formas!de!cosificación!sexual!es!la!experiencia!

de!ser!tratada!como!un!cuerpo!(o!una!colección!de!partes!del!cuerpo),!

valorado! predominantemente! para! su! uso! (o! consumo)! por! parte! de!

otros”! (Fredrickson! y! Roberts,! 1997,! p.! 174).! Esta! experiencia! ocurriría!

tanto! en! encuentros! interpersonales! y! sociales,! como! en! los! medios!

audiovisuales,!algo!que!se!da!con!asiduidad!y!que!viene!a!mostrar!que!la!

mujer!es!cosificada!sexualmente!con!más!frecuencia!que!el!hombre.!!

Entre! las! principales! consecuencias! psicológicas! que! se! derivan!

de! la! cosificación! sexual! está! la! autoOcosificación! (selfOobjectification)!

(para!revisión,!ver!Calogero,!TantleffODunn!y!Thompson,!2011).!Y!es!que!

ante! la! continua! exposición! a! la! mirada! cosificadora! de! los! otros,! las!

mujeres! acaban! por! adoptar! la! perspectiva! de! los! observadores!

externos,!considerándose!a!sí!mismas!como!un!cuerpo!al!que!mirar!y!ser!

evaluado.! Muchas! investigaciones! han! indagado! en! los! efectos!

 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 85!
!

perniciosos!que!la!experiencia!de!autoOcosificación!genera:!disrupciones!

en! el! flujo! de! conciencia! de! las! mujeres,! así! como! emociones! de!

vergüenza! y! ansiedad,! depresión,! disfunciones! sexuales! y! trastornos!

alimentarios!(Fredrickson!y!Roberts,!1997);!disminución!del!rendimiento!

cognitivo!(e.g.!Quinn,!Kallen,!Twenge,!y!Fredrickson,!2006);!o!deseos!de!

someterse!a!cirugía!estética!(Calogero,!Pina,!Park,!y!Rahemtulla,!2010).!!

El!interés!por!la!autoOcosificación!sexual!ha!promovido!la!búsqueda!de!

medidas!que!permitan!explorar!el!fenómeno!de!la!manera!más!rigurosa!

posible.!Uno!de!los!instrumentos!más!utilizados!es!la!“Objectified!Body!

Consciousness!Scale”!(OBCS)!(McKinley!y!Hyde,!1996).!

! McKinley! y! Hyde! (1996)! elaboraron! y! validaron! la! OBCS! para!

medir! la! consciencia! del! cuerpo! cosificado! de! mujeres! jóvenes! y! de!

mediana!edad.!Para!ello!partieron!de!las!teorías!feministas,!que!afirman!

que! las! mujeres! crecen! aprendiendo! que! su! cuerpo! es! un! objeto! para!

ser! mirado,! y! que! desde! la! infancia! la! cultura! se! encarga! de! promover!

unos!estándares!de!belleza!para!la!población!femenina!que!las!mujeres!

acaban! interiorizando! como! propios,! creyendo! que! son! posibles! de!

alcanzar.! Es! a! la! experiencia! del! cuerpo! como! objeto! y! a! los!

pensamientos!que!la!acompañan!a!lo!que!se!denomina!“consciencia!del!

cuerpo!cosificado”!(objectified!body!consciousness).!Según!las!creadoras!

de!la!OBCS!son!tres!los!componentes!de!dicha!consciencia,!que!son!los!

que! dan! lugar! a! las! tres! subescalas! que! conforman! la! OBCS:! Vigilancia!

Corporal! (Body! Surveillance),! Vergüenza! Corporal! (Body! Shame)! y!

Creencias! de! Control! de! la! Apariencia! (Appearance! Control! Beliefs).! La!
86! CHAPTER!2!
!

subescala!de!Vigilancia!recoge!la!idea!de!que!dado!que!las!mujeres!son!

objeto!de!atención!sexual!constante,!esto!las!lleva!a!una!autoOvigilancia!

permanente! de! su! cuerpo! para! asegurar! que! se! ajustan! a! los! ya!

comentados! cánones! de! belleza.! La! internalización! de! los! estándares!

corporales!que!marca!la!cultura!está!en!la!base!de!la!segunda!subescala,!

a! la! que! denominan! Vergüenza! Corporal,! porque! las! autoras! asumen!

que!resulta!bastante!difícil!alcanzar!ese!ideal!de!belleza!impuesto!desde!

el! exterior.! En! tercer! lugar,! la! subescala! de! Creencias! de! Control! de! la!

Apariencia! evalúa! el! grado! en! que! las! mujeres! creen! que! pueden!

controlar!el!aspecto!de!su!cuerpo!para!que!éste!se!ajuste!a!los!modelos!

de!belleza.!!

En! el! desarrollo! de! la! versión! original! de! la! OBCS,! McKinley! y!

Hyde!(1996)!realizaron!3!estudios!con!mayoría!de!mujeres!blancas,!dos!

de!ellos!(Estudios!1!y!3)!con!universitarias!y!otro!(Estudio!2)!que!incluía!

universitarias! y! también! mujeres! de! mediana! edad.! La! consistencia!

interna! de! las! puntuaciones! de! las! diferentes! escalas! fue! adecuada! en!

los!Estudios!1!y!2:!subescala!de!Vigilancia!α!=!de!.76!a!.89;!subescala!de!

Vergüenza!α!=!de!.75!a!.79!!y!subescala!Control!α!=!de!.68!a.76.!Además,!

sus!puntuaciones!mostraron!adecuadas!fiabilidades!testOretest!(Estudio!

3):! rs! =! .79,! .79! y! .73! para! Vigilancia,! Vergüenza! Corporal! y! Control!

respectivamente.!Un!análisis!factorial!exploratorio!en!el!Estudio!1!sirvió!

para! seleccionar! los! 24! ítems! que! componen! finalmente! la! OBCS,! y! un!

análisis! factorial! confirmatorio! en! el! Estudio! 2! avaló! el! modelo!

 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 87!
!

tridimensional! de! la! medida! propuesto! frente! a! dos! modelos!

alternativos:!unifactorial!y!biOfactorial.!

Para!validar!las!subescalas!las!autoras!también!incluyeron!otras!

medidas! en! los! tres! estudios,! algunas! de! tipo! conductual! (e.g.! si! las!

mujeres! incurrían! en! algún! tipo! de! restricción! en! su! alimentación! o! en!

conductas! relacionadas! con! el! control! de! la! apariencia),! y! otras!

actitudinales! (diferentes! escalas! diseñadas! para! medir! tópicos!

relacionados).!En!general,!McKinley!y!Hyde!(1996)!encontraron!apoyo!a!

las! hipótesis! de! partida! para! cada! uno! de! los! diferentes!

subcomponentes.! Las! puntuaciones! en! Vigilancia! y! Vergüenza! corporal!

predijeron! la! presencia! de! trastornos! alimentarios! o! el! miedo! a!

engordar,!a!la!vez!que!una!menor!autoestima!corporal.!Por!su!parte,!la!

mayor! presencia! de! Creencias! de! Control! se! relacionó! con! una! mayor!

práctica! de! ejercicio! físico! con! el! objetivo! de! controlar! el! peso,! y! con!

más!comportamientos!dirigidos!al!control!de!la!apariencia!(como!el!uso!

de!maquillaje!o!de!ropa!para!parecer!delgada).!!

Desde!su!creación!en!1996,!la!OBCS!ha!sido!usada!en!multitud!de!

estudios!y!con!muestras!muy!variadas!y!diferentes,!mostrándose!como!

una! medida! de! referencia! para! evaluar! la! autoOcosificación! sexual!

(Calogero,!2011).!La!escala!puede!ser!utilizada!tanto!con!su!puntuación!

global,! como! con! las! distintas! subescalas! por! separado,! siendo! esto!

último!lo!habitual.!Resultados!de!algunos!estudios!que!hacen!uso!de!la!

OBCS,!muestran!relaciones!de!la!autoOcosificación!con!un!descenso!en!el!

bienestar! de! mujeres! jóvenes! (Breines,! Crocker,! y! Garcia,! 2008),!

88! CHAPTER!2!
!

síntomas!depresivos!(MinerORubino,!Twenge,!y!Fredrickson,!2002),!baja!

autoestima!corporal!(McKinley!y!Hyde,!1996;!Noll!y!Fredrickson,!1998),!

vergüenza!corporal!o!deseos!de!someterse!a!cirugía!estética!(Calogero!y!

cols.,!2010).!!

! El! objetivo! de! nuestro! trabajo! ha! sido! desarrollar! la! versión!

española! de! la! OBCS.! Para! ello,! dos! traductores! independientes!

tradujeron! los! ítems! de! la! escala! original! al! español.! Posteriormente,!

otros! dos! traductores! tradujeron! estos! ítems! de! nuevo! al! inglés.!

Finalmente,! y! a! través! de! una! puesta! en! común! entre! los! traductores!

que! participaron! en! este! proceso! y! los! responsables! de! la! presente!

investigación,!se!llegó!a!una!propuesta!de!versión!española!de!la!OBCS.!

La!puesta!en!común!estuvo!guiada!en!todo!momento!por!la!definición!

teórica!original!dada!a!cada!una!de!las!dimensiones!de!la!escala,!de!tal!

manera! que! los! matices! diferenciales! encontrados! en! la! traducción!

fueron! consensuados! bajo! los! principios! de! la! validez! de! contenido,! y!

por!lo!tanto!de!salvaguardar!la!representatividad!y!pertenencia!teórica!

de!los!ítems!de!la!escala!(DelgadoORico,!CarreteroODios,!y!Ruch,!2012).!

Estudio!1!

En! este! estudio! se! realizó! el! primer! análisis! estadístico! de! los!

ítems! de! la! versión! española! de! la! OBCS,! y! se! exploró! la! estructura!

interna!de!la!escala!y!la!relación!entre!sus!componentes.!Para!obtener!

evidencias!de!validez!de!las!puntuaciones!de!la!OBCS,!se!analizaron!las!

relaciones! esperadas! entre! las! puntuaciones! en! sus! dimensiones! con!

 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 89!
!

otras! variables! relevantes! teórica! y! empíricamente.! Concretamente,! se!

han!incluido!las!siguientes!tres!medidas:!!

1)! La! Enjoyment! of! Sexualization! Scale! (ESS)! (Liss,! Erchull,! y!

Ramsey,!2011),!que!mide!el!disfrute!de!la!mujer!al!ser!sexualizada!por!

los! hombres.! Esperamos! que! las! puntuaciones! en! esta! medida! estén!

relacionadas,! tal! y! como! han! mostrado! otros! estudios! (e.g.,! Erchull! y!

Liss,!2013;!Liss!y!cols.,!2011;!Visser,!Sultani,!Choma,!y!Pozzebon,!2014),!

con! la! autoOcosificación! sexual,! sobre! todo! con! la! Vigilancia! Corporal,!

que!refleja!si!una!persona!vigila!su!apariencia!y!piensa!con!frecuencia!en!

el!aspecto!que!tiene!su!cuerpo.!!!

2)!La!subescala!“OthersNdirectedness”!de!la!SelfNMonitoring!Scale!

de!Snyder!(1974)!que!permite!evaluar!en!qué!medida!una!persona!está!

orientada! hacia! los! otros,! o! bien! hacia! sus! valores.! Esperamos! que! las!

puntuaciones! en! esta! escala! estén! positivamente! relacionadas! con! las!

de!la!OBCS,!especialmente!también!con!la!subescala!de!Vigilancia,!dado!

que!ambas!medidas!intentan!recoger!la!preocupación!de!la!persona!por!

ajustarse!a!lo!que!cree!que!los!demás!esperan!de!ella.!!!

3)! El! Inventario! de! Sexismo! Ambivalente! (ASI)! (Glick! y! Fiske,!

1996).! Puesto! que! la! autoOcosificación! implica! que! la! mujer! asume! las!

normas! tradicionales! sobre! ella! misma! relativas! a! la! importancia! del!

cuerpo,! sería! de! esperar! que! cuanto! más! tradicional! fuera! la! mujer! en!

términos! de! sexismo,! más! alto! puntuaría! en! autoOcosificación,! tal! y!

como!han!mostrado!algunos!estudios!correlacionales!(e.g.,!Erchull!y!Liss,!

2013;!Liss!y!cols.,!2011).!
90! CHAPTER!2!
!

4).!La!Escala!de!Autoestima!de!Rosenberg!(1965),!que!refleja!el!grado!de!

satisfacción! que! tiene! una! persona! consigo! misma.! Investigaciones!

previas! han! encontrado! que! las! puntuaciones! en! esta! escala!

correlacionan! negativamente! con! las! de! la! OBCS! (Visser! y! cols.,! 2014),!

siendo!mayor!la!relación!de!la!autoestima!con!la!Vergüenza!que!con!la!

Vigilancia.!

Método!

Participantes!

Participaron!218!mujeres,!todas!estudiantes!de!una!universidad!

pública!española.!Su!media!de!edad!fue!de!20.04!años!(SD!=!2.17)!y!el!

rango!entre!17!y!31!años.!

Instrumentos!

Las!participantes!respondieron!a!las!siguientes!escalas:!

1)! La! Objectified! Body! Consciousness! Scale! (McKinley! y! Hyde,!

1996).!La!versión!española!(ver!ANEXO)!consta!de!24!ítems,!en!la!que!las!

participantes!muestran!su!grado!de!acuerdo!o!desacuerdo!con!cada!una!

de! las! afirmaciones! en! una! escala! tipo! Likert! de! 7! puntos! desde! 1!

(totalmente!en!desacuerdo)!hasta!7!(totalmente!de!acuerdo)!(siendo!el!

valor!4!ni!de!acuerdo!ni!en!desacuerdo).!En!cada!ítem!también!aparece!

la! alternativa! de! respuesta! NA! (no! aplicable).! La! escala! consta! de! tres!

subescalas,!de!8!ítems!cada!una:!Vigilancia!Corporal!(e.g.!“A!menudo!me!

preocupo!por!si!la!ropa!que!llevo!me!sienta!bien”!o!“Me!preocupo!más!

por! lo! que! puedo! hacer! por! mi! cuerpo! que! del! aspecto! que! tiene”),!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 91!
!

Vergüenza!Corporal!(e.g.!“Me!siento!mal!cuando!mi!apariencia!no!es!tan!

buena!como!podría!ser”!o!“Me!siento!avergonzada!de!mí!misma!cuando!

no! me! esfuerzo! por! tener! el! mejor! aspecto! posible”),! y! Creencias! de!

Control! de! la! Apariencia! (e.g.! “Pienso! que! una! persona! puede! tener! la!

apariencia! que! ella! quiera! si! está! dispuesta! a! trabajar! en! ello”! o!

“Realmente! no! pienso! que! tenga! mucho! control! sobre! mi! apariencia!

corporal”).!

2)!Subescala!“OthersNdirectedness”!de!la!SelfNMonitoring!Scale!de!

Snyder!(1974)!(versión!!española!de!Echebarría!y!Páez,!1989).!Consta!de!

11! ítems,! (e.g.,! ! “Mi! comportamiento! normalmente! expresa! mis!

verdaderos! sentimientos! interiores,! actitudes! y! creencias”)! que!

originalmente! se! contestan! en! formato! V/F,! pero! que! nosotros!

presentamos!en!formato!de!respuesta!tipo!Likert!(desde!1!=!totalmente!

en!desacuerdo,!hasta!7!=!totalmente!de!acuerdo),!con!el!objetivo!de!que!

siguieran! la! misma! pauta! de! respuesta! que! el! resto! de! medidas.! Su!

consistencia! interna! en! nuestro! estudio! fue! adecuada! (α! =! .79),! tras!

eliminar!dos!ítems!que!correlacionaron!pobremente!con!la!puntuación!

total.!Mayores!puntuaciones!indican!mayor!orientación!hacia!los!demás.!!

3)! Enjoyment! of! Sexualization! Scale! (ESS)! (Liss! et! al,! 2011).! Se!

utilizó!una!versión!en!español!realizada!para!esta!investigación!también!

mediante!el!procedimiento!de!traducción!inversa.!Está!compuesta!por!9!

ítems! referidos! al! disfrute! de! la! mujer! al! ser! sexualizada! por! los!

hombres.! Los! ítems! (e.g.,! “Para! mí! es! importante! que! los! hombres! se!

sientan!atraídos!por!mí”)!se!contestan!en!un!formato!de!respuesta!tipo!
92! CHAPTER!2!
!

Likert! de! 6! puntos! (1,! “totalmente! en! desacuerdo”! y! 6! “totalmente! de!

acuerdo”).! Su! consistencia! interna! en! este! estudio! fue! alta! (α! =! .90).!

Mayores!puntuaciones!indican!mayor!disfrute!al!ser!sexualizada!por!los!

demás.!!

4)! Escala! de! Autoestima! de! Rosenberg! (1965)! (versión! en!

castellano! de! Echeburúa,! 1995).! ! Medida! de! autoinforme! de! 10! ítems!

respondidos! con! un! formato! de! respuesta! tipo! Likert! de! 4! puntos! (1!

significa! “totalmente! en! desacuerdo”! y! 4! “totalmente! de! acuerdo”).! El!

alpha! de! Cronbach! fue! .88.! Mayores! puntuaciones! indican! mayor!

autoestima.!

5)! Inventario! de! Sexismo! Ambivalente! (ASI)! (Glick! y! Fiske,! 1996;!

versión!española!de!Expósito,!Moya,! y!Glick,!1998).!Compuesto!por!22!

ítems! que! conforman! dos! subescalas! de! 11! ítems! cada! una:! Sexismo!

Hostil! (SH)! (α! =! .90)! (e.g.,! “La! mayoría! de! las! mujeres! no! aprecian!

completamente! todo! lo! que! los! hombres! hacen! por! ellas”)! y! Sexismo!

Benévolo!(SB)!(α!=!.88)!(e.g.,!“Muchas!mujeres!se!caracterizan!por!una!

pureza! que! pocos! hombres! poseen”).! El! formato! de! respuesta! a! sus!

ítems!fue!tipo!Likert:!de!0!Ototalmente!en!desacuerdoN!a!5Ototalmente!de!

acuerdo).!SH!y!SB!correlacionaron!positivamente,!r!=!.62;!p!<!.001.!!

Finalmente! las! participantes! indicaban! su! edad,! sexo! y! titulación! que!

cursaban.!

Procedimiento!

Las!estudiantes!completaron!el!cuestionario!individualmente!en!

aulas! de! la! universidad.! Asimismo,! fueron! informadas! sobre! la!

 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 93!
!

confidencialidad!de!sus!respuestas!tanto!de!manera!oral,!como!escrita.!

El!orden!de!presentación!de!las!escalas!fue!contrabalanceado.!

Análisis!estadísticos!

Se!trabajó!con!el!paquete!estadístico!SPSS!(versión!17.0).!Para!el!

análisis!de!ítems!se!calcularon!los!estadísticos!descriptivos!de!cada!uno!

de!los!elementos!de!la!escala,!además!de!sus!índices!de!discriminación!

por! medio! de! la! correlación! ítemOtotal! corregida.! La! fiabilidad! de! las!

puntuaciones! para! cada! una! de! las! dimensiones! supuestas! del!

instrumento,!se!calculó!a!través!del!coeficiente!de!consistencia!interna!

alfa! de! Cronbach.! El! estudio! exploratorio! de! la! estructura! interna! del!

instrumento! se! realizó! mediante! análisis! factorial! exploratorio! de! ejes!

principales!con!posterior!rotación!varimax.!La!decisión!sobre!el!número!

de! factores! a! retener! se! basó! en! dos! aproximaciones! de! análisis!

diferenciales! con! el! objetivo! de! poder! emitir! un! mejor! juicio! sobre! la!

estructura! subyacente! de! las! puntuaciones! del! instrumento.! De! esta!

forma,!se!consideraron!los!resultados!generados!por!el!Análisis!Paralelo!

a! través! del! programa! Monte! Carlo! PCA! for! Parallel! Analysis! (Watkins,!

2000),!a!la!vez!que!los!índices!de!ajuste!RMSEA!y!SRMR!asociados!a!las!

diferentes! soluciones! factoriales! exploratorias! diferenciadas! por! el!

número! de! factores! a! retener.! Estos! últimos! índices! se! obtuvieron! por!

un!procedimiento!de!estimación!de!máxima!verosimilitud!(ML)!tal!cual!

se!implementa!en!programa!Mplus!(Muthén!y!Muthén,!2004O2008).!
94! CHAPTER!2!
!

Resultados!

Análisis! de! ítems! y! Estudio! exploratorio! de! la! estructura! interna!

de!la!OBCS!

En! la! tabla! 1! se! presentan! los! estadísticos! descriptivos! de! los!

ítems!de!la!OBCS!junto!a!los!valores!de!correlación!ítemOtotal!corregida!

(índice! de! discriminación)! separando! los! cómputos! por! dimensión!

teórica!esperada!de!la!OBCS.!

Los!índices!de!discriminación!de!los!ítems!(correlación!ítemOtotal!

corregida)! para! la! dimensión! Vigilancia! Corporal! y! Vergüenza! Corporal!

fueron! adecuados! (véase! Tabla! 1),! oscilando! entre! .30! y! .56! para! el!

primer! caso,! y! entre! .51! y! .71! para! el! segundo.! Para! la! dimensión!

Creencias!de!Control!de!la!Apariencia,!no!obstante,!se!observó!un!valor!

bajo! para! el! ítem! 4! (.16).! Para! el! resto! de! ítems! de! esta! dimensión! los!

valores!oscilaron!entre!.25!y!.55.!

Los!estadísticos!descriptivos!fueron!indicativos!de!una!adecuada!

variabilidad! de! las! respuestas! de! los! participantes,! con! desviaciones!

típicas!en!todos!los!casos!superiores!a!1.!!

Para! el! análisis! de! la! consistencia! interna,! y! siguiendo! las!

instrucciones! de! McKinley! y! Hyde,! se! procedió! a! invalidar! las!

puntuaciones! en! aquellas! subescalas! en! las! que! una! participante!

hubiera!respondido!con!NA!o!espacios!en!blanco!en!más!de!dos!ítems.!

Los!coeficientes!de!consistencia!interna!de!las!diferentes!subescalas!de!

la! OBCS! fueron! los! siguientes:! Vigilancia! Corporal! α! =! .73;! Vergüenza!

 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 95!
!

Corporal!α!=!.84;!Creencias!de!Control!de!la!Apariencia!α!=!.66,!similares!

a! los! informados! en! los! estudios! de! ! McKinley! y! Hyde! (1996),! con!

muestras!de!mujeres!universitarias!y!de!mediana!edad.!

Tabla!1.!Estadísticos!descriptivos!y!correlación!ítemNtotal!corregida!para!
los!ítems!de!la!OBCS.!
!
Items! M! SD! ctic!

Vigilancia!corporal! ! ! !
OBCS_1! 5.64! 1.69! .30!
OBCS_3! 4.23! 1.65! .44!
OBCS_7! 3.46! 1.58! .34!
OBCS_9! 5.27! 1.58! .48!
OBCS_14! 3.99! 1.90! .56!
OBCS_16! 5.41! 1.41! .53!
OBCS_18! 5.25! 1.46! .39!
OBCS_20! 4.38! 1.45! .33!

Vergüenza!corporal! !
OBCS_2! 4.03! 2.01! .55!
OBCS_5! 2.88! 1.73! .60!
OBCS_8! 4.61! 1.78! .60!
OBCS_11! 2.64! 2.06! .58!
OBCS_13! 2.74! 1.67! .51!
OBCS_15! 4.39! 1.82! .49!
OBCS_17! 2.52! 1.66! .61!
OBCS_22! 3.24! 2.07! .71!

Creencias!de!Control!de!la!Apariencia!
OBCS_4! 4.52! 1.73! .16!
OBCS_6! 4.09! 1.78! .38!
OBCS_10! 5.28! 1.44! .25!
OBCS_12! 5.19! 1.53! .35!
OBCS_19! 4.58! 1.53! .51!
OBCS_21! 5.32! 1.82! .45!
OBCS_23! 5.11! 1.60! .25!
OBCS_24! 4.62! 1.56! .55!

!
Nota:!N!=!218.!citc!=!correlación!itemOtotal!corregida.!!
!
96! CHAPTER!2!
!

Las! medias! globales! en! las! dimensiones! de! la! OBCS! (M! =! 4.84!

para! Vigilancia,! M! =! 3.34! en! Vergüenza! y! M! =! 3.24! en! Control)! se!

encuentran!en!el!rango!de!las!obtenidas!por!McKinley!y!Hyde!(1996)!en!

la!escala!original!(4.22,!3.34!y!3.25!respectivamente).!!De!igual!forma,!y!

en! la! línea! de! lo! encontrado! en! las! investigaciones! previas,! la! única!

relación!estadísticamente!significativa!encontrada!entre!las!dimensiones!

de!la!OBCS!fue!la!aparecida!para!el!caso!de!la!Vigilancia!y!Vergüenza!(r!=!

.55,!p!<!.001).!

Análisis!exploratorio!de!la!estructura!interna!de!la!OBCS!!

Previamente! a! la! aplicación! del! análisis! propiamente! dicho,! se!

calculó!la!medida!de!adecuación!muestral!de!KaiserOMeyerOOlkin!(KMO)!

y!la!prueba!de!esfericidad!de!Barlett.!KMO!fue!igual!a!0.88!y!el!índice!de!

Barlett,! con! un! valor! de! jiOcuadrado! aproximado! de! 1187,04,! fue!

significativo!a!p!<!0.001.!Los!resultados!de!ambos!cálculos!indicarían!la!

adecuación!de!la!matriz!de!datos!para!ser!sometidos!al!correspondiente!

análisis!factorial.!!

La! aplicación! del! análisis! factorial! exploratorio! con! rotación!

Varimax! (Tabla! 2)! arrojó! una! solución! donde! sólo! tres! factores!

presentaron! valores! propios! mayores! a! 1.! Tanto! los! resultados! del!

Análisis! Paralelo,! como! los! índices! de! ajuste! RMSEA! (0.06)! y! SRMR!

(0.05),! apuntaron! a! una! solución! de! tres! factores.! La! solución!

unifactorial!(RMSEA=!0.12;!SRMR=!0.12),!y!la!de!dos!factores!(RMSEA=!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 97!
!

0.09;! SRMR=! 0.09)! obtuvieron! unos! índices! de! ajuste! insuficientes,! no!

encontrándose!convergencia!para!soluciones!de!más!de!tres!factores.!

Estos! tres! factores! (véase! Tabla! 2),! en! función! del! contenido!

semántico! de! los! ítems! que! los! integran,! pueden! ser! claramente!

identificados! con! los! factores! de! la! propuesta! teórica! original:!

Vergüenza! corporal! (pesos! factoriales! entre! .52! y! .79),! Creencias! de!

Control! (pesos! factoriales! entre! .18! y! .88)! y! Vigilancia! Corporal! (pesos!

factoriales!entre!.25!y!.51).!!

Algunos! de! los! ítems! que! integran! su! factor! teóricamente!

esperado! presentan! pesos! factoriales! secundarios! en! factores! que! no!

son!el!propio.!No!obstante,!nótese!que!en!todos!los!casos!dichos!pesos!

son!inferiores!a!los!observados!para!el!factor!de!pertenencia.!

Por!último,!subrayar!cómo!de!nuevo!el!ítem!4!obtiene!una!carga!

factorial! baja! en! su! factor! de! pertenencia! (aunque! su! saturación! en! el!

resto!de!factores!está!entorno!a!cero).!!!!!

!
98! CHAPTER!2!
!

!
Tabla!2.!Solución!factorial!rotada!(varimax)!de!los!ítems!de!la!OBCS.!

FI:! F!II:! F!III:!

Items% h2%
Vergüenza! Control! Vigilancia!

OBCS_22! .79! ! ! .63!

OBCS_17! .69! ! ! .47!
OBCS_11! .64! ! ! .51!
OBCS_8! .61! ! .30! .53!
OBCS_5! .57! ! ! .46!
OBCS_2! .57! .32! ! .44!
OBCS_13! .54! ! ! .31!
OBCS_15! .52! ! .30! .43!
OBCS_24! ! .88! ! .69!
OBCS_19! ! .79! ! .66!
OBCS_21! ! .50! ! .35!
OBCS_6! ! .48! ! .30!
OBCS_12! ! .36! ! .22!
OBCS_10! ! .25! ! .23!
OBCS_23! ! .22! ! .26!
OBCS_4! ! .18! ! .20!
OBCS_3! ! ! .51! .32!
OBCS_16! .40! ! .46! .45!
OBCS_9! .41! ! .43! .45!
OBCS_18! .33! ! .42! .44!
OBCS_14! ! ! .40! .62!
OBCS_1! ! ! .30! .20!
OBCS_7! ! ! .27! .31!
OBCS_20! ! ! .25! .28!

Autovalores! 4.24! 2.32! 1.67! !

%varianza! 17.67! 9.68! 6.97! !
explicada!

Nota:!N!=!218.!En!cursiva!los!pesos!factoriales!de!los!ítems!listados!en!el!
factor! al! que! teóricamente! pertenecen.! h2! =! comunalidades.! Pesos!
factoriales!>!.30!en!factores!de!no!pertenencia!son!listados.!!
! !
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 99!
!

Relaciones!entre!la!OBCS!y!otras!variables!

Se!calcularon!las!correlaciones!bivariadas!entre!las!puntuaciones!

de!la!OBCS!y!las!diferentes!medidas!consideradas!para!este!estudio:!los!

resultados!van!en!la!dirección!esperada!(véase!Tabla!3).!!

Tabla!3.!Correlaciones!entre!medidas!incluidas!en!el!estudio!1!

!
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
! ! ! ! ! ! !
1.!Vigilancia!!
.56**! ! ! ! ! ! !
2.!Vergüenza!!
3.!Creencias!Control!de!! O.11! .03! ! ! ! ! !
la!!Apariencia!!
4.!Orientación!a!los!!!! .24**! .31**! .06! ! ! ! !
demás!
5.!Disfrute!!de!la!!!! .40**! .11! O.06! .23**! ! ! !
Sexualización!
6.!Autoestima! O.17*! O.42**! O.13! O.36**! .02! ! !

7.!Sexismo!Hostil! .18**! .23**! .13! .14*! .14*! O.07! !

8.!Sexismo!Benévolo! .10! .08! .05! .10! .26**! O.04! .62**!

Nota:!N!=!218.!*p!<!.05,!**p!<!.01!
!
Así,!las!puntuaciones!en!Vigilancia!y!Vergüenza!Corporal!(pero!no!

Creencias!de!Control)!correlacionaron!positivamente!con!la!orientación!

hacia!los!demás!(Subescala!“OthersOdirectedness”!de!la!SelfOMonitoring!

Scale),! indicando! que! dichas! subescalas! captan! aspectos! relacionados!

con! la! preocupación! de! la! persona! por! ajustarse! a! lo! que! cree! que! los!

demás!esperan!de!ella.!Las!puntuaciones!en!Vigilancia!y!Vergüenza!(r!=!O

.17,!p!<!.05!y!r!=!O.42,!p!<!.01,!respectivamente)!también!aparecieron,!tal!
100! CHAPTER!2!
!

como! predijimos,! negativamente! relacionadas! con! la! autoestima! Oen!

magnitud! similar! a! las! encontradas! por! Visser! y! cols.! (2014).! La!

puntuación!en!la!subescala!de!Vigilancia!se!relacionó!positivamente!con!

el! Disfrute! de! la! Sexualización,! de! forma! similar! a! como! se! ha!

encontrado! en! estudios! realizados! en! Estados! Unidos! (Erchull! y! Liss,!

2013;!Liss!et!al,!2011;!Visser!et!al,!2014).!A!diferencia!de!lo!encontrado!

en!estos!estudios,!en!nuestro!caso!la!correlación!entre!las!puntuaciones!

de!EES!y!Vergüenza!no!llegó!a!ser!significativa.!

En!el!caso!del!sexismo,!ninguna!de!las!tres!subescalas!del!OBCS!

apareció! relacionada! con! el! SB.! En! cambio,! las! puntuaciones! en!

Vigilancia! y! Vergüenza! corporal! correlacionaron! positivamente! con! el!

SH,!igual!que!se!encontró!en!algunos!estudios!previos!(e.g.!Erchull!y!Liss,!

2013;!Liss!y!cols.,!2011).!!

Discusión!

Según!los!resultados!obtenidos,!la!versión!española!de!la!escala!

OBCS! de! 24! ítems! presenta! unas! propiedades! psicométricas! iniciales!

adecuadas,! mostrando! los! ítems! una! adecuada! variabilidad! y!

discriminación.! El! ítem! 4! de! la! escala! presenta! ciertos! valores!

inadecuados,! tanto! de! discriminación! como! de! saturación! factorial! y!

algunas!cargas!factoriales!de!otros!ítems!están!por!debajo!de!.30!en!su!

factor!de!pertenencia.!A!pesar!de!ello,!decidimos!retener!la!estructura!

factorial! de! tres! factores,! tal! y! como! establece! la! propuesta! teórica!

original.! Teniendo! en! cuenta! todos! los! ítems! de! cada! una! de! las!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 101!
!

dimensiones,! los! coeficientes! de! consistencia! interna! se! han! mostrado!

adecuados.! Las! puntuaciones! de! la! OBCS! han! correlacionado! en! el!

sentido!predicho!con!otros!constructos,!lo!que!aporta!evidencias!sobre!

su!validez!externa.!!

Estudio!2!

El! objetivo! fundamental! de! este! estudio! fue! realizar! un! análisis!

confirmatorio! de! la! estructura! interna! de! la! escala! OBCS! y! explorar!

nuevas! asociaciones! con! otras! medidas! relacionadas! con! la! autoO

cosificación:! el! SelfOObjectification! Questionnaire! (Noll! y! Fredrickson,!

1998)!y!la!Interpersonal!Sexual!Objectification!Scale!(ISOS)!(Kozee,!Tylka,!

AugustusOHorvath,!y!Denchik,!2007).!Además,!se!incorporó!un!escenario!

ficticio! en! el! que! pedíamos! a! cada! participante! que! imaginara! que! era!

cosificada!por!un!grupo!de!chicos!desconocidos,!para!darle!un!contexto!

cosificador!al!estudio.!En!el!caso!del!SOQ,!diversas!investigaciones!han!

mostrado! que! las! puntuaciones! en! esta! medida! correlacionaban!

positivamente!con!las!obtenidas!en!la!subescala!de!Vigilancia!(r!=!de!.18!

a!.45,!según!el!estudio)!y!con!las!puntuaciones!en!Vergüenza!(r!=!de!.19!

a! .36)! (Calogero! y! Jost,! 2011;! Liss! y! cols.,! 2011).! Por! su! parte,! la! ISOS!

permite! indagar! sobre! la! frecuencia! con! la! que! las! mujeres!

experimentan! eventos! de! naturaleza! cosificadora! en! su! vida! diaria,!

concretamente! en! relación! a! la! Evaluación! de! su! Cuerpo! OBody!

EvaluationO! y! los! Avances! Sexuales! Explícitos! No! Deseados! OUnwanted!

Explicit!Sexual!Advances.!Investigaciones!previas,!mayoritariamente!con!
102! CHAPTER!2!
!

muestras! de! universitarias! estadounidenses,! han! mostrado! relaciones!

bajas,!aunque!significativas!en!algunos!casos,!entre!las!puntuaciones!de!

la!subescala!de!Body!Evaluation!de!la!ISOS!y!las!subescalas!de!Vigilancia!

(r!=!de!O.09!a!.27),!y!Vergüenza!(r!=!de!.08!a!29),!y!entre!la!subescala!de!

Unwanted!Explicit!Sexual!Advances!de!la!ISOS!y!la!de!Vigilancia!(r!=!de!O

.25!a!.16),!y!Vergüenza!(r!=!de!.15!a!.28)!(e.g.,!Erchull!y!Liss,!2013;!Kozee!

y!cols.,!2007;!Liss!y!cols.,!2011).!!

Método!

Participantes!

Participaron! 201! mujeres! de! una! universidad! pública! española,!

con!una!media!de!edad!de!19.45!años!(DT!=!2.16)!(rango!entre!18!y!30!

años).!

Instrumentos!

Las! participantes! contestaron! a! un! cuestionario! que! incluía! las!

siguientes!medidas:!

1)!Escenario.!Contenía!la!descripción!de!una!escena!hipotética!en!

la!que!se!pedía!a!la!participante!que!se!imaginase!caminando!sola!por!la!

calle!y!recibiendo!atención!sexual!por!parte!de!un!grupo!de!jóvenes,!que!

la!mira!y!le!sonríe,!dos!de!ellos!le!silban,!y!uno!le!hace!un! comentario!

acerca!de!“lo!buena!que!está”.!!

2)!Escala!OBCS!(McKinley!y!Hyde,!1996),!que!en!este!caso!mostró!

las!siguientes!fiabilidades:!Vigilancia!α!=!.68;!Vergüenza!α!=!.82!y!Control!

α!=!.75.!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 103!
!

3)! SelfNObjectification! Questionnaire! (SOQ)! (Noll! y! Fredrickson,!

1998),! versión! en! castellano! que! realizamos! mediante! traducción!

inversa.!Este!instrumento!evalúa!la!importancia!que!tienen!los!atributos!

físicos! observables! (subescala! Apariencia)! frente! a! atributos! no!

observables! del! cuerpo! (subescala! Competencia)! en! el! autoconcepto!

físico!de!la!persona.!La!escala!se!contesta!en!formato!de!ranking,!de!9!a!

0!en!cada!atributo!según!la!importancia!que!se!le!dé.!Se!suman!todos!los!

rankings! otorgados! a! los! cinco! atributos! de! Apariencia,! así! como! los!

dados! a! los! cinco! atributos! de! Competencia.! A! los! primeros! valores! se!

les!restan!los!segundos!y!así!se!obtiene!la!puntuación!total!en!el!SOQ.!

Cuanto!más!alta!y!positiva!más!importancia!da!la!persona!a!la!apariencia!

física! frente! a! la! competencia.! Debido! al! formato! de! respuesta! de!

ranking,!no!es!posible!estimar!la!consistencia!interna!de!esta!escala!de!

manera! estándar.! Para! suplir! esta! carencia! Hill! y! Fischer! (2008)!

recomiendan!informar!de!la!correlación!entre!ambas!subescalas,!que!en!

nuestro! caso! fue! de! r! =! O.83,! cuya! dirección! negativa! nos! informa! al!

menos!de!la!relación!inversa!entre!los!dos!tipos!de!atributos.!

4)!Interpersonal!Sexual!Objectification!Scale!(ISOS)!(Kozee!y!cols.,!

2007;!versión!española!de!Lozano,!ValorOSegura,!Sáez,!y!Expósito,!2015).!

Mide!la!frecuencia!de!eventos!con!los!que!una!mujer!ha!sido!cosificada!

sexualmente! durante! el! último! año.! El! formato! de! respuesta! es! tipo!

Likert! de! 1! (nunca)! a! 5! (casi! siempre)! y! se! compone! de! dos! factores,!

Evaluación!del!Cuerpo!(Body!Evaluation)!(e.g.,!“¿Con!qué!frecuencia!te!

han!silbado!mientras!caminas!por!la!calle?”;!α!=!.86)!y!Avances!Explícitos!
104! CHAPTER!2!
!

Sexuales! No! Deseados! (Unwanted! Explicit! Sexual! Advances)! (α! =! .76)!

(e.g.,!!“¿Con!qué!frecuencia!te!han!manoseado!contra!tu!voluntad?”).!!

Procedimiento!

Se!siguió!un!procedimiento!similar!al!del!estudio!1.!En!este!caso!

las!participantes!leyeron!en!primer!lugar!el!escenario,!y!posteriormente!

respondieron!las!tres!medidas!de!autoOcosificación.!!!

Resultados!

Se! realizó! un! análisis! factorial! confirmatorio! (CFA)! sobre! las!

puntuaciones! en! la! OBCS.! Para! reducir! la! varianza! error! que! aporta! el!

elevado!número!de!ítems!al!aplicar!CFA,!y!siguiendo!las!aproximaciones!

usadas! por! varios! autores! (CarreteroODios,! Eid,! y! Ruch,! 2011),! se!

procedió! a! generar! nuevos! indicadores! para! cada! factor! basados! en! el!

agrupamiento! de! ítems! (items! parcels).! Se! obtuvieron! concretamente!

cuatro!indicadores!para!cada!una!de!las!subescalas!(cada!uno!formado!

por!el!agrupamiento!de!dos!ítems).!El!agrupamiento!de!ítems!se!basó!en!

la!estrategia!de!Kishton!y!Widaman!(1994),!basada!en!las!saturaciones!

factoriales! asociadas! a! cada! ítem.! Dado! que! la! estructura! de!

puntuaciones! de! la! OBCS! no! se! ajustó! a! una! distribución! normal!

multivariante,! se! usó! como! estimador! MLR! (Mplus! 5.0;! Muthén! y!

Muthén,!2004O2008).!Se!sometieron!a!prueba!tres!modelos!de!medida!

alternativos:! el! modelo! trifactorial! tal! cual! es! definido! por! las! autoras!

originales! de! la! escala! (Modelo! 1)! y! dos! modelos! alternativos:! uno! de!

dos! factores! (Modelo! 2)! compuesto! por! Vergüenza! y! Vigilancia! por! un!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 105!
!

lado! (dada! la! relación! positiva! encontrada! entre! ambas),! y! Control! por!

otro;!y!un!modelo!unifactorial!(Modelo!3).!!

La!toma!de!decisión!sobre!el!ajuste!de!los!modelos!se!basó!en!la!

inspección! de! varios! índices! de! referencia.! Se! consideró! RMSEA! (Root!

Mean! Square! Error! of! Approximation)! con! sus! correspondientes!

intervalos!de!confianza!al!90%,!SRMR!(Standardized!Root!Mean!Square!

Residual),! CFI! (Comparative! Fit! Index)! y! TLI! (Tucker! Lewis! Index).! Se!

consideraron! como! indicadores! de! buen! ajuste! aquellos! valores! por!

debajo!de!.08!para!RMSEA!y!SRMR,!y!por!encima!de!.90!para!CFI!y!TLI.!

En!la!tabla!4!se!muestran!los!resultados!asociados!a!los!índices!de!ajuste!

estimados! y! que! apoyan! el! modelo! de! tres! factores! propuesto! para! la!

OBCS.!!

Estimación! de! la! Fiabilidad! y! Relaciones! entre! la! OBCS! y! otras!

variables!

Los! diferentes! subcomponentes! de! la! escala! OBCS! mostraron! la!

siguiente! consistencia! interna:! Vigilancia! α! =! .68,! Vergüenza! α! =! .82! y!

Creencias!de!Control!!α!=!.75.!

Las! puntuaciones! medias! fueron:! en! Vergüenza! M! =! 3.48! (SD! =!

1.25),!en!Vigilancia!M!=!!4.57!(SD!=!.98)!y!en!Control!M!=!!4.68!(SD!=!.99),!!

similares! a! las! del! Estudio! 1! y! a! las! encontradas! en! la! versión!

original! (McKinley! y! Hyde,! 1996).! Las! puntuaciones! en! Vigilancia! y!

Vergüenza! correlacionaron! de! nuevo! significativamente! (Tabla! 5),! pero!

106! CHAPTER!2!
!

las! puntuaciones! en! la! subescala! de! Control! no! correlacionaron! con!

ninguna!de!las!otras!dos!subescalas,!tal!y!como!se!esperaba.!

Tabla!4.!Evaluación!del!ajuste!de!la!OBCS!!

ChiG 90!%!!
df% RMSEA! SRMR! CFI! TLI!
! square! C.I.!

Modelo! 0.000!!
61.441! 51! 0.033! 0.052! 0.98! 0.974!
1! 0.059!

Modelo! 0.066!!
127.072! 53! 0.085! 0.08! 0.86! 0.82!
2! 0.104!

Modelo! 0.131!!!
279.609! 54! 0.148! 0.132! 0.57! 0.475!
3! 0.165!

Nota:! N! =! 201.! Modelo! 1! =! modelo! trifactorial! compuesto! por! las!

dimensiones! Vigilancia! Corporal,! Vergüenza! Corporal! y! Creencias! de!
Control!de!la!Apariencia.!Modelo!2!=!modelo!bifactorial!con!Vergüenza!y!
Vigilancia!como!un!factor!y!Control!como!otro.!!Modelo!3!=!unifactorial.!!

!
Como! puede! apreciarse! en! la! Tabla! 5,! ! las! relaciones! van! en! la!

dirección!esperada.!Las!puntuaciones!en!la!subescala!de!Vigilancia!de!la!

OBCS! correlacionaron! positiva! y! significativamente! con! la! Vergüenza! y!

con!el!SOQ,!así!como!con!el!componente!de!Evaluación!del!Cuerpo!de!la!

ISOS.!La!magnitud!de!la!relación!entre!Vigilancia!y!SOQ!(en!nuestro!caso,!

r!=!.36)!y!entre!Vigilancia!y!la!subescala!de!Evaluación!del!Cuerpo!de!la!

ISOS! (r! =! .17)! fueron! ! similares! a! las! encontradas! en! otros! estudios!

(Calogero!y!Jost,!2011;!Erchull!y!Liss,!2013;!Kozee!et!al.,!2007;!Liss!et!al.,!

2011).! Sin! embargo,! aunque! en! estos! estudios! las! puntuaciones! en!

Vigilancia!del!OBCS!correlacionaron!con!las!puntaciones!en!la!subescala!

de! Intentos! Sexuales! Explícitos! de! la! ISOS! (r! =! entre! O.25! y! .22),! en!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 107!
!

nuestro! caso! esta! correlación! fue! cercana! a! cero.! ! En! el! caso! de! las!

puntuaciones! en! la! subescala! de! Vergüenza,! tal! como! predijimos,! los!

resultados! son! similares! a! los! de! Vigilancia,! pues! además! de!

correlacionar!positivamente!con!ésta,!lo!hizo!con!el!SOQ.!En!este!último!

caso,! la! correlación! fue! de! r! =! .27! y! las! encontradas! en! otros! estudios!

oscilaban!entre!r!=!.19!y!.36)!(Erchull!y!Liss,!2013;!Kozee!et!al.,!2007;!Liss!

et!al.,!2011).!Sin!embargo,!aunque!en!otros!estudios!se!han!encontrado!

relaciones! positivas! significativas! entre! Vergüenza! y! las! dos! subescalas!

de!la!ISOS!(Erchull!y!Liss,!2013;!Kozee!et!al.,!2007;!Liss!et!al.,!2011),!en!

nuestro!caso!ambas!correlaciones!no!fueron!significativas.!La!subescala!

de! Control,! al! igual! que! ocurriera! en! el! Estudio! 1,! no! correlacionó!

significativamente!con!las!otras!dos!subescalas.!!

Tabla!5.!Correlaciones!entre!las!diferentes!subescalas!de!la!OBCS,!SOQ!e!
ISOS.!
!!!
!
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

1.!Vigilancia!Corporal!% ! ! ! ! !

2.Vergüenza!Corporal!% .43**! ! ! ! !

3.Creencias!de!Control!Apariencia!% .09! O.05! ! ! !

4.!AutoGCosificación!(SOQ)% .36**! .27**! .14! ! !

5.!Evaluación!del!Cuerpo!% .17*! .02! .08! .18*! !

6.!Avances!Sexuales!No!Deseados!! .10! .07! O.02! .09! .44**!

Nota:!N!=!201.!*p!<!.05,!**p!<!.01!
108! CHAPTER!2!
!

Discusión!

Estos! resultados! corroboran! la! estructura! de! tres! factores! de! la!

escala! OBCS! en! español,! después! de! utilizar! una! estrategia! de! análisis!

más! rigurosa! como! es! el! análisis! factorial! confirmatorio.! Como! en! el!

estudio! 1,! las! subescalas! de! Vigilancia! y! Vergüenza! aparecieron!

relacionadas! entre! sí! y! reflejaron! ser! relativamente! independientes! de!

las!puntuaciones!en!la!subescala!de!Control.!

Además,! utilizando! procedimientos! diferentes,! hemos!

encontrado! indicios! de! la! validez! convergente! de! la! OBCS,! obteniendo!

correlaciones!entre!las!subescalas!de!Vigilancia!y!Vergüenza!de!la!OBCS!

y!otras!dos!medidas!de!autoOcosificación.!!

Discusión!General!

El! objetivo! de! este! trabajo! fue! realizar! un! estudio! psicométrico!

de! la! versión! española! de! la! OBCS,! con! la! finalidad! de! ofrecer! un!

instrumento! en! castellano! para! evaluar! la! autoOcosificación! sexual! en!

mujeres!jóvenes!españolas.!Con!los!resultados!obtenidos!podemos!decir!

que! la! versión! en! español! de! la! escala! tiene! unas! propiedades!

psicométricas!similares!a!las!de!la!versión!original!en!inglés.!

Igual! que! en! su! versión! inglesa,! el! estudio! de! la! estructura!

interna! de! la! escala! a! través! de! procedimientos! exploratorios! y!

confirmatorios! respaldarían! la! estructura! trifactorial:! Vigilancia! del!

Cuerpo,!Vergüenza!Corporal!y!Creencias!de!Control!de!la!Apariencia.!A!

pesar! de! que! las! puntuaciones! en! las! subescalas! de! Vigilancia! y! de!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 109!
!

Vergüenza!suelen!estar!relacionadas!entre!sí!Oy!poco!relacionadas!con!la!

tercera! subescala:! Creencias! de! Control! de! la! AparienciaO,! el! análisis!

factorial! confirmatorio! indica! que! la! solución! tridimensional! es! mejor!

que!una!bidimensional!(en!la!que!la!Vergüenza!y!Vigilancia!se!incluyesen!

dentro!de!un!mismo!factor!y!el!Control!como!otro).!

Los!análisis!para!estudiar!la!fiabilidad!de!las!puntuaciones!de!las!

tres! subescalas! también! nos! confirmaron! una! aceptable! consistencia!

interna!de!cada!una!de!ellas,!similar!a!las!encontradas!en!otros!estudios!

(McKinley!y!Hyde,!1996).!!

Respecto! a! la! validez! externa! de! la! medida,! reflejada! en! su!

relación!con!constructos!similares!o!relacionados,!los!resultados!fueron,!

en! líneas! generales,! acordes! con! lo! previsto:! las! puntuaciones! en!

Vigilancia!y!Vergüenza!Corporal!(pero!no!en!Creencias!de!Control!de!la!

Apariencia)! aparecieron! positivamente! relacionadas! con! los! obtenidos!

en! la! escala! de! “Orientación! Hacia! los! Demás”.! Además,! corroborando!

las! numerosas! aportaciones! que! han! mostrado! las! consecuencias!

negativas!que!la!autoOcosificación!tiene!para!las!mujeres,!los!resultados!

de!nuestro!primer!estudio!también!indican!que!cuanto!mayores!son!las!

puntuaciones! de! las! participantes! en! Vigilancia! y! Vergüenza,! menor! es!

su!autoestima.!

La!validez!de!las!puntuaciones!de!la!subescala!de!Vigilancia!de!la!

OBCS,! queda! refrendada! por! su! relación! con! el! SOQ! (refleja! la!

importancia! otorgada! a! la! apariencia! física)! y! con! la! subescala! de!

Evaluación! del! Cuerpo! de! la! ISOS! (mayores! puntuaciones! revelan!

110! CHAPTER!2!
!

haberse!sentido!con!frecuencia!evaluadas!por!el!aspecto!físico;!Estudio!

2),!así!como!con!la!medida!que!refleja!el!disfrute!al!ser!sexualizada!por!

otros!(Enjoyment!of!Sexualization;!Estudio!1).!

Por!su!parte,!las!evidencias!de!validez!para!las!puntuaciones!de!

la!subescala!de!Vergüenza!Corporal!quedan!respaldadas,!además!de!por!

lo! que! ya! hemos! indicado,! por! su! relación! con! las! puntuaciones! en! el!

SOQ! (que! mide! la! importancia! otorgada! a! la! apariencia! física! en!

comparación!con!la!importancia!dada!a!la!salud).!!

Los! estudios! incluidos! en! este! trabajo! adolecen! no! obstante! de!

algunas! limitaciones.! Primero,! las! muestras! de! ambos! estuvieron!

compuestas!exclusivamente!por!estudiantes!universitarias.!La!aplicación!

y! validación! de! la! escala! en! muestras! diferentes,! preferentemente!

integradas! por! población! general,! sería! deseable.! En! segundo! lugar,! la!

relación!esperada!entre!las!puntuaciones!en!las!subescalas!de!la!OBCS!y!

ciertas!medidas,!como!la!de!Sexismo!Benévolo,!no!ha!aparecido,!aunque!

las! puntuaciones! en! Vigilancia! y! Vergüenza! Corporal! correlacionaron!

positivamente! con! el! Sexismo! Hostil.! Parece! necesario! pues,! que!

investigaciones!futuras!indaguen!en!esta!relación,!complementando!los!

estudios!correlacionales!con!otros!de!naturaleza!experimental.!

En! resumen,! podemos! concluir! que! la! versión! en! español! de! la!

OBCS! es! un! instrumento! adecuado! para! la! evaluación! de! la! autoO

cosificación!femenina!en!muestras!de!población!universitaria!española.!!

!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 111!
!

Referencias!

Breines,!J.!G.,!Crocker,!J.,!y!Garcia,!J.!A.!(2008).!SelfOobjectification!and!

wellObeing! in! women’s! daily! lives.! Personality! and! Social!

Psychology! Bulletin,! 34,! 583O598.! doi:!

10.1177/0146167207313727!

Calogero,!R.!M.!(2011).!Operationalizing!selfOobjectification:!Assessment!

and!related!methodological!issues.!En!R.!M.!Calogero,!S.!TantleffO

Dunn,! y! J.! K.! Thompson! (Eds.),! SelfNObjectification! in! women:!

Causes,! consequences,! and! counteractions! (pp.! 23O49).!

Washington!DC:!American!Psychological!Association.!!

! doi:10.1037/12304O002!!

Calogero,! R.! M.,! y! Jost,! J.! (2011).! SelfOsubjugation! among! women:!

Exposure! to! sexist! ideology,! selfOobjectification,! and! the!

protective! function! of! the! need! to! avoid! closure.! Journal! of!

Personality!and!Social!Psychology,!2,!211–228.!!

doi:10.1037/a0021864!

Calogero,! R.! M.,! Pina,! A.,! Park,! L.! E.,! y! Rahemtulla,! Z.! (2010).!

Objectification!theory!predicts!college!women’s!attitudes!toward!

cosmetic!surgery.!Sex!Roles,!63,!32O41.!doi: 10.1007/s11199O010O

9759O5!!

CarreteroODios,! H.,! Eid,! M.,! y! Ruch,! W.! (2011).! Analyzing! multitraitN

mulitmethod! data! with! multilevel! confirmatory! factor! analysis:!

An! application! to! the! validation! of! the! StateNTrait! Cheerfulness!

112! CHAPTER!2!
!

Inventory.! Journal! of! Research! in! Personality,! 45,! 153O

164.!!doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.12.007!!

DelgadoORico,!E.,!CarreteroODios,!H.,!y!Ruch,!W.!(2012).!Content!validity!

evidences! in! test! development:! An! applied! perspective.!

International!Journal!of!Clinical!and!Health!Psychology,!12,! 449O

460.!Recuperado!de:!!

! http://www.aepc.es/ijchp/index.php?coid=Espa%F1ol!

Echebarría,! A.! y! Páez,! D.! (1989).! Emociones:! perspectivas! psicosociales.!

Madrid:!Fundamentos.!!

Echeburúa,! F.! (1995).! Evaluación! y! tratamiento! de! la! fobia! social.!

Barcelona:!Martínez!Roca.!!

Erchull,! N.! J.,! y! Liss,! M.! (2013).! Exploring! the! concept! of! perceived!

female! sexual! empowerment:! Development! and! validation! of!

the! Sex! is! Power! Scale.! Gender! Issues,! 30,! 39–53.!

doi:10.1007/s12147O013O9114O6!

Expósito,! F.,! Moya,! M.,! y! Glick,! P.! (1998).! Sexismo! ambivalente:!

medición!y!correlatos.!Revista!de!Psicología!Social,!13,!159O169.!

doi:10.1174/021347498760350641!

Fredrickson,! B.,! y! Roberts,! T.! (1997).! Objectification! Theory:! Toward!

understanding! women’s! lived! experiences! and! mental! health!

risks.! Psychology! of! Women! Quarterly,! 21,! 173O206.!

doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.1997.tb00108.x!

Glick,! P.,! y! Fiske,! S.! (1996).! The! ambivalent! sexism! inventory:!

Differentiating! hostile! and! benevolent! sexism.! Journal! of!

 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 113!
!

Personality! and! Social! Psychology,! 70,! 491O512.!

doi:10.1037/0022O3514.70.3.491!!

Gruenfeld,! D.,! Inesi,! M.! E.,! Magee,! J.,! y! Galinsky,! A.! (2008).! Power! and!

objectification!of!social!targets.!Journal!of!Personality!and!Social!

Psychology,! 95,! 111O127.! ! http://dx.doi.org/! 10.1037/0022O

3514.95.1.111!!

Hill,! M.! S.,! y! Fischer,! A.! R.! (2008).! Examining! objectification! theory:!
Lesbian!and!heterosexual!women’s!experiences!with!sexual!and!
selfOobjectification.! Counseling! Psychologist,! 36,! 745O776.!
doi:10.1177/0011000007301669!
Kishton,!J.!M.,! y!Widaman,!K.!F.!(1994).!Unidimensional!versus!domain!

representative! parceling! of! questionnaire! items:! An! empirical!

example.!Educational!and!Psychological!Measurement,!54,!757–

765.!doi:10.1177/0013164494054003022!!

Kozee,!H.!B.,!Tylka,!T.!L.,!AugustusOHorvath,!C.!L.,! y!Denchik,!A.!(2007).!

Development! and! psychometric! evaluation! of! the! interpersonal!

sexual!objectification!scale.!Psychology!of!Women!Quarterly,!31,!

176–189.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.2007.00351.x!

Liss,! M.,! Erchull,! M.,! y! Ramsey,! L.! (2011).! Empowering! or! oppressing?!

Development!and!exploration!of!!the!Enjoyment!of!Sexualization!

Scale.! Personality! and! Social! Psychology! Bulletin,! 37,! 55O68.!

doi:10.1177/0146167210386119!

Lozano,!L.!M.,!ValorOSegura,!I.,!Sáez.!G.,!Expósito,!F.!(2015).!The!Spanish!

adaptation! of! the! Interpersonal! Sexual! Objectification! Scale!

114! CHAPTER!2!
!

(ISOS).! Psicothema,! 27,134O140.!

doi:10.7334/psicothema2014.124!

Luengas,! H.! T.,! y! VelandiaOMorales,! A.! (2012).! Nivel! de! sexismo! en!
consumidores! y! su! valoración! sexista! de! la! publicidad.! Suma!
Psicológica,!19,!75O88.!
McKinley,! N.,! y! Hyde,! J.! S.! (1996).! The! Objectified! Body! Consciousness!

Scale.! Development! ! and! validation.! Psychology! of! Women!

Quarterly,!20,!181O215.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.1996.tb00467.x!

MinerORubino,!!K.,!Twenge,!!J.!M.,!y!Fredrickson,!B.!L.!(2002).!Trait!selfO

objectification! in! women:! Affective! and! personality! correlates.!

Journal! of! Research! in! Personality,! 36,! 147–172.!

doi:10.1006/jrpe.2001.2343!

Muthén,! B.O.,! y! Muthén,! L.K.! (2004–2008).! Mplus.! User! manual.! Los!

Angeles,!CA:!Muthén!y!Muthén.!!

Noll,!S.!M.,!y!Fredrickson,!B.!L.!(1998).!A!mediational!model!linking!selfO

objectification,! body! shame,! and! disordered! eating.! Psychology!

of! Women! Quarterly,! 22,! 623–636.! doi:10.1111/j.1471O

6402.1998.tb00181.x!

Quinn,! D.! M.,! Kallen,! R.! W.,! Twenge,! J.! M.,! y! Fredrickson,! B.! L.! (2006).!

The! disruptive! effect! of! selfOobjectification! on! performance.!

Psychology!of!Women!Quarterly,!30,!59–64.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O

6402.2006.00262.x!

Rosenberg,!M.!(1965).!Society!and!the!adolescent!selfNimage.!Princeton,!

NJ:!Princeton!University!Press.!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 115!
!

Snyder,! M.! (1974).! SelfOmonitoring! of! expressive! behavior.! Journal! of!

Personality!and!Social!Psychology,!30,!526.!

Visser,! B.! A.,! Sultani,! F.,! Choma,! B.! L.,! y! Pozzebon,! J.! A.! (2014).!

Enjoyment! of! sexualization:! Is! it! different! for! men?! Journal! of!

Applied!Social!Psychology,!44,!495–504.!doi:10.1111/jasp.12241!

Watkins,! M.! W.! (2000).! Monte! Carlo! PCA! for! Parallel! Analysis! (Version!

2.5)! [Computer! software].! State! College,! PA:! Ed! &! Pych!

Associates.!
116! CHAPTER!2!
!

APÉNDICE!

Ítems!de!la!versión!española!de!la!“Objectified!Body!Consciousness!

Scale”!

Instrucciones:!A!continuación,!te!pedimos!que!marques! con!una!“X”!el!

número!que!se!corresponda!con!el!grado!en!que!estás!de!acuerdo!con!

cada! una! de! las! afirmaciones! de! las! siguientes! páginas.! Marca! NA!

solamente! en! el! caso! de! que! la! afirmación! no! sea! aplicable! a! ti.! Si! no!

estás! de! acuerdo! con! la! afirmación,! entonces! marca! en! desacuerdo,!

pero!no!NA.!Por!ejemplo,!si!la!afirmación!dice!“Cuando!estoy!contenta,!

me!dan!ganas!de!cantar”,!y!a!ti!no!te!dan!ganas!de!cantar!cuando!estás!

contenta,!entonces!deberías!marcar!una!de!las!opciones!de!desacuerdo.!

Sólo!marcarías!NA!si!nunca!hubieras!estado!contenta.!!

!
1.!Raramente!pienso!en!mi!aspecto*!
2.!Cuando!no!puedo!controlar!mi!peso,!siento!que!algo!va!mal!en!mí!
3.!Pienso!que!es!más!importante!que!mi!ropa!sea!cómoda,!que!el!hecho!
de!que!me!quede!bien*!
4.!Creo!que!una!persona!debería!conformarse!con!el!físico!que!tiene!de!
nacimiento*!
5.! Me! siento! avergonzada! de! mí! misma! cuando! no! me! esfuerzo! por!
tener!el!mejor!aspecto!posible!
6.! Mantenerse! en! forma! depende! en! gran! medida! de! la! constitución!
física!que!se!tenga*!
7.! Me! preocupa! más! cómo! me! siento! físicamente! que! el! aspecto! que!
tengo*!!
8.!Me!siento!mal!cuando!mi!apariencia!no!es!tan!buena!como!podría!ser!!
9.!Raramente!comparo!mi!aspecto!con!el!de!otras!personas*!
10.!Pienso!que!una!persona!puede!tener!la!apariencia!que!ella!quiera!si!
está!dispuesta!a!trabajar!en!ello!
11.!Me!daría!vergüenza!que!la!gente!supiera!cuánto!peso!
 ! SPANISH!VERSION!OF!THE!OBCS! 117!
!

12.!Realmente!no!pienso!que!tenga!mucho!control!sobre!mi!apariencia!
corporal*!
13.! Incluso! cuando! no! puedo! controlar! mi! peso,! pienso! que! soy! una!
persona!valiosa*!
14.!Pienso!en!mi!aspecto!muchas!veces!a!lo!largo!del!día!
15.! Nunca! pienso! que! estoy! haciéndolo! mal! aunque! no! haga! todo! el!
ejercicio!que!debiera*!
16.!A!menudo!me!preocupo!por!si!la!ropa!que!llevo!me!sienta!bien!
17.! Cuando! no! hago! suficiente! ejercicio,! me! cuestiono! si! soy! una!
persona!suficientemente!!valiosa!
18.!Raramente!me!preocupo!de!cómo!me!ven!otras!personas*!
19.Pienso! que! lo! que! determina! fundamentalmente! el! peso! de! una!
persona!son!sus!genes*!
20.! Me! preocupo! más! de! lo! que! puedo! hacer! con! mi! cuerpo! que! del!
aspecto!que!tiene*!
21.! No! importa! lo! mucho! que! me! esfuerce! por! cambiar! mi! peso,!
probablemente!siempre!va!a!seguir!igual*!
22.!Me!siento!avergonzada!cuando!no!tengo!la!talla!de!ropa!que!debería!
23.!Cuando!me!lo!propongo!firmemente,!puedo!conseguir!el!peso!que!
debería!tener.!
24.!Tu!forma!física!depende!principalmente!de!los!genes!que!tengas*!
!
*Ítems!marcados!con!asterisco!necesitan!ser!recodificados.!
!
VIGILANCIA!CORPORAL!(Ítems!1,!3,!7,!9,!14,!16,!18!y!20).!
VERGÜENZA!CORPORAL!(Ítems!2,!5,!8,!11,!13,!15,!17!y!22).!!
CREENCIAS! DE! CONTROL! DE! LA! APARIENCIA!(Ítems!4,!6,!10,!12,!19,!21,!23!y!
24).!!
!
!(NOTA:!la!escala!se!ha!de!presentar!con!un!formato!de!respuesta!de!1O
totalmente! en! desacuerdoO! a! 7Ototalmente! de! acuerdoO,! siendo! 4! el!
punto!medioOni!de!acuerdo!ni!en!desacuerdoO!e!incorporando!también!
la!opción!NA).!
!

!
 !

Chapter 3:

Reactions to objectifying behaviors

(‘piropos’)
 !

!
!

Objectifying!in!Both!Ways:!The!Effects!of!Lewd!and!Gallant!

“Piropos”!

!
!

Abstract!

Women’s! objectification! through! appearanceOrelated! comments! in! the!

street! (piropos)! was! studied.! Some! piropos! are! identified! as! lewd! by!

most! people,! but! others! are! considered! nice.! In! Study! 1! (n! =! 136),!

numerous!piropos!that!are!usual!in!Spain!were!collected.!Their!level!of!

acceptance! was! analyzed! and! whether! they! were! perceived! as!

objectifying! behavior.! In! Study! 2! (n! =! 148),! women! indicated! their!

reactions! to! two! of! these! piropos,! one! clearly! gallant! and! the! other!

lewd.!Compared!to!a!control!group,!women!exposed!to!the!lewd!piropo!

experienced! less! joy! and! power! and! greater! anger,! anxiety,! and!

discomfort.!In!the!case!of!the!gallant!piropo,!the!consequences!were!not!

as! negative! as! they! were! for! the! group! exposed! to! the! hostile! piropo,!

but! the! scores! for! the! positive! reactions! (e.g.,! joy,! power)! were! never!

higher! than! those! of! the! control! group.! Study! 3! replicated! the! main!

results! of! Study! 2! and! showed,! using! a! within! subject! design,! that! the!

lewd! and! gallant! piropos! are! not! different! in! nature,! as! it! is! shown! by!

the!high!correlation!between!the!women!reactions!to!both!of!them.!The!

results! of! the! three! studies! highlight! the! objectifying! nature! and!

consequences!of!piropos.!

Keywords:! sexual! objectification,! street! harassment,! piropos,!

consequences,!Spain!

!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 123!
!

A!piropo!is!defined!as!“a!short!saying!that!praises!some!quality!of!

someone,! especially! a! woman’s! beauty”! (Royal! Spanish! Academy! [Real!

Academia! Española],! 2014).! Piropos! vary! in! nature.! Some! are!

undoubtedly!identified!as!rude!and!lewd!by!most!people,!but!others!are!

considered!nice!and!even!flattering.!

It! is! frequently! noted! that! piropos! generate! very! diverse!

reactions!among!the!Spanish!population.!For!example,!in!January!2015,!

Ángeles! Carmona,! the! president! of! the! Observatory! against! Domestic!

and! Gender! Violence! of! the! Spanish! Judiciary! (CCPJ),! made! statements!

on!national!radio!asking!for!the!eradication!of!the!piropo!on!the!street,!

declaring!it!“an!invasion!of!a!woman’s!privacy”!(“La!Presidenta”,!2015).!

Immediately!thereafter,!a!controversy!erupted!on!social!media.!No!one,!

it! seems,! is! indifferent! to! the! use! of! the! piropo.! In! the! following! days,!

movements!appeared!on!Twitter,!such!as!#EliminaUnPiropo!(“Eliminate!

a!Piropo”),!that!supported!Carmona’s!position,!whereas!others!painted!

her!statements!as!over!the!top.!An!intermediate!position!was!expressed!

during! the! debate! by! people! who! felt! that! certain! obscenities! that! are!

shouted!at!women!on!the!street!should!not!be!tolerated!but!that!kind!

and! pleasant! comments! need! not! be! viewed! as! bad! or! prohibited.!

Therefore,! it! seems! that! people! who! reject! any! type! of! piropos!

essentially!consider!that!they!reflect!the!same!reality:!the!objectification!

of!women;!but!those!who!refuse!to!accept!lewd!piropos!but!like!gallant!

ones! think,! however,! that! one! type! of! piropos! has! nothing! to! do! with!
124! CHAPTER!3!
!

the! other:! the! lewd! ones! reflect! hostility! and! objectification,! and! the!

gallant! ones! are! a! proof! of! admiration! and! positive! feelings! towards!

women.! The! conclusion! following! these! discussions! in! the! media! was!

that!the!piropo!is!a!controversial!topic!about!which!there!does!not!seem!

to!be!agreement!(Agudo,!2015).!

The!Piropo!in!Spain!and!other!Latino!Countries!

! In!the!first!study!we!know!of!dedicated!to!the!piropo,!Beinhauer!

(1973)!describes!the!phenomenon!as!typically!Spanish,!although!it!also!

exists! in! other! SpanishOspeaking! Latino! countries! (Diosdado,! 1996;!

Fridlizius,! 2009),! in! addition! to! other! countries! in! the! Mediterranean!

Basin!(Carvajal,!2014;!SuárezOOrozco!and!Dundes,!1984).!The!origins!of!

the! piropo! appear! to! be! very! difficult! to! identify! and! are! sometimes!

attributed!to!medieval!troubadour!poetry!(Soukkio,!1998)!or!traditional!

Spanish! theater! (Preisig,! 1998).! Be! that! as! it! may,! two! arguments!

frequently! appear! in! studies! that! examine! the! piropo! from! a! linguistic!

perspective:! the! idea! that! it! is! a! phenomenon! in! decline! (Astakhova,!

2014;! Beinhauer,! 1973;! Preisig,! 1998)! and,! over! the! years,! has!

deteriorated,! giving! way! to! expressions! that! are! far! from! the! original!

poetic! compositions! of! earlier! times! (Carvajal,! 2014).! However,! these!

two!assertions!have!also!been!questioned!by!other!authors.!Similarly,!in!

relation! to! the! first! topic,! statistics! indicate! that! though! the! use! of!

piropos! has! diminished,! Spanish! women! continue! to! receive! them!

relatively! frequently! in! their! everyday! lives! (“You’re! Wonderful”! [“Eres!

 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 125!
!

Maravillosa”],! 2009).! Moreover,! regarding! the! idea! that! piropos! from!

earlier! years! were! pleasant! and! gallant! but! that! current! piropos! are!

predominantly! lewd,! we! have! found! references! in! the! literature! that!

indicate!that!lewd!piropos!existed!in!the!past!and!that!during!that!time,!

they! were! also! rejected! by! women! (Carvajal,! 2014;! SuárezOOrozco! and!

Dundes,!1990).!

From!the!debate!that!emerged!on!social!media!comes!the!idea,!

defended! by! some! women! and! men,! that! gentler! and! more! flattering!

piropos! are! positive! and,! as! a! result,! are! received! with! pleasure.!

According!to!this!idea,!the!use!of!the!piropo!is!only!repudiated!when!the!

comment!is!unpleasant!or!lewd!(Carvajal,!2014;!GaytanOSánchez,!2009).!!

According! to! Fridlizius! (2009),! street! piropos! in! Spain! tend! to! occur!

during! interactions! in! which! people! do! not! know! one! another! and!

almost!always!reference!the!physical!attributes,!and!no!other!qualities,!

of!the!women!who!receive!them.!This!tendency!points!to!a!clear!form!of!

sexual!objectification.!Therefore,!piropos!of!any!type!can!be!viewed!as!

objectifying! behavior! because! they! mostly! focus! on! women’s! physical!

appearance!and,!as!such,!can!have!negative!consequences!for!women.!

In! this! paper,! we! intend! to! test! this! hypothesis! and! to! study! the!

reactions!of!women!both!to!clearly!unpleasant!piropos!and!to!those!that!

are!milder!and!more!flattering.!
126! CHAPTER!3!
!

Objectification!

Making! comments! about! a! woman’s! physical! characteristics! or!

about! some! part! of! her! body! or! opining! about! her! appearance,! as! is!

done! when! piropos! are! said! on! the! street,! parallels! what! Fredrickson!

and!Roberts!identify!in!their!objectification!theory!(1997):!“the!common!

thread! running! through! all! forms! of! objectification:! the! experience! of!

being! treated! as! a! body! (or! a! collection! of! body! parts)! valued!

predominantly! for! its! use! to! (or! consumption)! by! others”! (Fredrickson!

and!Roberts,!1997,!p.!174).!!

! Piropos! that! come! from! strangers! can! also! be! considered!

“stranger! harassment,”! that! is,! the! “[sexual]! harassment! of! women! in!

public! places! by! men! who! are! strangers”! (Bowman,! 1993,! p.! 519).!

According!to!this!author,!stranger!harassment!“includes!both!verbal!and!

nonverbal!behavior,!such!as!wolfOwhistles,!leers,!winks,!grabs,!pinches,!

catcalls,! and! stranger! remarks;! the! remarks! are! frequently! sexual! in!

nature!and!comment!evaluatively!on!a!woman’s!physical!appearance!or!

on!her!presence!in!public”!(Bowman,!1993,!p.!523).!

! Although! street! harassment! is! a! very! frequent! form! of! sexual!

objectification!(Fairchild,!2010;!Fairchild!and!Rudman,!2008;!Macmillan,!

Nierobisz,! and! Welsh,! 2000),! few! studies! have! investigated! its! effects!

through!the!lens!of!objectification!theory!(Davidson,!Gervais,!and!Sherd,!

2013).! For! example,! Davidson! et! al.! (2013)! find! that! experiences! of!

harassment! by! strangers! predicted! greater! selfOobjectification! among!

 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 127!
!

women! and! an! increased! tendency! to! objectify! others,! including! both!

women! and! men.! Similarly,! Fairchild! and! Rudman! (2008)! find! that!

stranger! harassment! positively! correlated! with! selfOobjectification,!

although!this!correlation!only!occurred!when!women!used!passive!(and!

not!active)!coping!mechanisms!in!the!face!of!harassment.!

! As!occurs!with!the!piropo,!women!can!show!different!responses!

to! male! sexual! attention! and! stranger! harassment,! ranging! from! very!

positive!to!very!negative!(Liss,!Erchull,!and!Ramsey,!2011).!For!example,!

according!to!Moffit!and!Szymanski!(2011),!who!examine!the!experiences!

of!women!working!in!sexually!objectifying!places,!although!many!of!the!

participants!in!their!studies!reported!negative!consequences!from!these!

types! of! jobs! and! work! places,! some! women! also! reported! increased!

selfOconfidence!and!selfOesteem.!

! Nevertheless,! it! is! worth! remembering! that! the! negative!

consequences!of!objectification!reach!beyond!whether!women!perceive!

objectifying!behavior!directed!towards!them!as!positive!or!negative.!For!

example,! research! has! demonstrated! that! even! women! who! have! a!

positive!view!of!appearance!compliments!still!show!increased!levels!of!

body!surveillance,!body!shame,!and!body!dissatisfaction!when!receiving!

these! types! of! compliments! (Calogero,! Herbozo,! and! Thompson,! 2009;!

Tiggemann! and! Boundy,! 2008),! which! are! clear! cues! of! selfO

objectification.! Similarly,! it! has! been! found! that! experiencing!

harassment! has! negative! outcomes! for! women! even! if! they! do! not!

identify!the!events!as!sexual!harassment!(Magley,!Hulin,!Fitzgerald,!and!
128! CHAPTER!3!
!

DeNardo,!1999).!These!results!suggest!that!some!women!may!come!to!

expect!to!be!sexually!objectified!because!praise!reminds!them!that!their!

bodies!are!being!evaluated!by!others!(Calogero!et!al.,!2009;!Tiggemann!

and!Boundy,!2008).!

This!Study!

Using! the! diverse! opinions! regarding! piropos! that! exist! in! Spain!

as!a!starting!point,!we!propose!to!empirically!explore!this!phenomenon.!

We!completed!a!first!study!with!the!goal!of!collecting!a!relatively!broad!

and! varied! repertoire! of! piropos,! simultaneously! analyzing! how! these!

were!perceived!by!women—especially!whether!they!were!perceived!as!

objectifying! behavior.! In! Study! 2,! we! chose! two! piropos! from! among!

those!previously!collected,!one!“lewd”!and!one!“gallant,”!and!presented!

them! to! two! groups! of! women,! asking! them! to! imagine! that! they! had!

received! one! or! the! other! from! an! unknown! man! on! the! street! (a!

control! group! did! not! imagine! herself! in! the! scenario! of! receiving! a!

piropo).! The! goal! was! to! analyze! whether! these! two! types! of! piropos!

produced! similar! or! different! effects! in! women.! Basically,! what! was!

studied!was!whether!the!two!piropos!influenced!positive!emotions!(joy)!

and! negative! emotions! (anger,! sadnessOdepression,! and! anxiety)!

experienced! by! women! and! whether! they! influenced! their! feelings! of!

helplessness!and!power.!In!the!same!study,!participants!were!also!asked!

to! evaluate! various! dimensions! of! the! piropo! to! understand! how! they!

perceived! it.! These! dimensions! allowed! us! to! diagnose! whether! each!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 129!
!

piropo!was!perceived!positively!or!negatively.!Our!objective!in!including!

this!measurement!was!to!analyze!whether!the!effects!of!piropos!(both!

lewd! and! gallant)! depended! on! how! they! were! perceived.! In! social!

psychology,! it! is! a! wellOdocumented! fact! that! one’s! attitude! towards! a!

given! object—that! is,! one’s! evaluation—has! numerous! effects! on!

information! processing,! social! memory,! and! behavior! (Bohner! and!

Dickel,! 2011).! Thus,! our! general! hypothesis! is! that! a! given! attitude!

towards! a! piropo! will! influence! the! reactions! that! it! provokes.! What! is!

more! difficult! to! predict! is! the! manner! in! which! that! influence! occurs.!

Regarding!women!who!have!a!positive!attitude!towards!piropos!(or,!at!

least,!who!do!not!clearly!reject!them),!one!would!expect!that!the!piropo!

produces!greater!joy!or!feelings!of!power!and!less!anger!or!helplessness,!

for!example.!However,!in!the!case!of!women!who!reject!piropos,!we!do!

not! know! whether! hearing! piropos! causes! women! to! feel! better! or!

worse.!That!is,!the!piropo!might!make!them!feel!even!greater!anger!and!

helplessness! and! less! joy! and! power! (after! experiencing! clear! hostility,!

according! to! them);! alternatively,! if! they! reject! the! piropo,! there! is! no!

effect,!whether!adverse!or!positive.!

! Given! that! the! design! of! Study! 2! compared! two! groups! of!

participants,! its! results! did! not! allow! us! to! understand! how! women!

themselves! evaluated! both! types! of! piropos! at! the! same! time,! that! is,!

how! assessments! of! the! two! piropos! correlated! or! were! different! in!

nature,!as!some!people!proposed.!For!this!reason,!in!a!third!study,!we!

once! again! used! the! “lewd”! and! “gallant”! piropos! from! Study! 2! and!
130! CHAPTER!3!
!

presented!both!to!only!one!group!of!women!to!test!how!they!perceived!

them! using! the! same! evaluative! dimensions! employed! in! Study! 2.! So!

doing!we!aimed!to!replicate!the!previous!results!from!Study!2,!using!a!

within! subjects! design,! and! additionally! testing! if! perceptions! of! both!

types! of! piropos,! “lewd”! and! “gallant”,! were! correlated! or! were!

independent.!!

Study!1!

! The! goal! of! this! study! was! to! analyze! college! students’!

assessments!of!different!piropos.!We!completed!the!task!in!two!phases.!

In!the!first,!with!the!goal!of!collecting!a!relatively!broad!representation!

of! piropos,! students! of! both! genders! (n! =! 100)! in! an! introductory!

psychology!course!at!a!university!in!the!south!of!Spain!generated!a!list!

of!piropos!with!which!they!were!familiar.!The!25!most!frequently!listed!

piropos! were! selected,! and! an! effort! was! made! to! include! different!

types!of!piropos.!Table!1!(see!appendix)!shows!the!selected!sample.!In!

the! second! phase,! other! psychology! students! (n! =! 136)! assessed! these!

piropos.!

Method!

Participants!

!! A!total!of!136!psychology!students!(73%!women,!n!=!99)!with!a!

mean!age!of!20.07!years!(SD!=!2.74)!completed!the!assessments.!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 131!
!

Procedure!

The! students! were! provided! with! a! link! to! an! online!

questionnaire! that! they! answered! at! their! convenience! by! using! the!

Qualtrics! platform.! Upon! entering! the! platform,! the! participants! were!

divided!randomly!into!two!groups,!each!of!which!was!presented!with!12!

or! 13! piropos.! The! piropos! were! evaluated! against! seven! dimensions,!

using! a! 7Opoint! scale! (1! meaning! “not! at! all”! and! 7! “completely”).! The!

dimensions! were! as! follows:! 1)! treats! the! woman! as! an! object,! not! a!

person;! 2)! treats! the! woman! as! existing! simply! for! the! man’s! use! and!

enjoyment;! 3)! has! sexual! connotations;! 4)! expresses! that! the! man!

depends!on!and!needs!the!woman;!5)!expresses!a!positive!image!of!the!

woman;!6)!is!unpleasant;!and!7)!portrays!the!woman!by!focusing!on! a!

single!part!of!her!body.!Answers!were!given!on!a!scale!of!1!(not!at!all)!to!

7!(very!much!so).!These!scales!were!created!with!the!goal!of!reflecting!

the!following!features,!which!are!relevant!for!an!analysis!of!the!piropo!

from!the!perspective!of!sexual!objectification!theory:!1)!the!assessment!

of! the! piropo! (positive! or! negative);! 2)! whether! the! piropo! objectifies!

women;!and!3)!the!sexual!content!of!the!piropo.!

Results!

! In!general,!there!were!barely!any!differences!between!men!and!

women! in! their! evaluation! of! the! 25! piropos! against! each! of! the!

dimensions.!On!the!limited!occasions!when!there!were!differences,!the!

scores!indicated!more!positive!or!less!negative!judgments!on!the!part!of!
132! CHAPTER!3!
!

men.! Given! that! the! piropos! in! Study! 2! present! an! exclusively! female!

population!and!that!the!number!of!male!participants!in!this!study!was!

significantly! lower! than! the! number! of! women! participants,! the! scores!

presented!in!Table!1!only!reflect!the!answers!of!female!participants.!

! Table! 2! includes! the! mean! scores! for! each! dimension! for! all! of!

the! piropos! considered! together.! Tables! 1! and! 2! show! that! in! general,!

female! participants! felt! that! piropos! did! not! reflect! a! positive! view! of!

women!and!perceived!them!as!slightly!unpleasant.!Nevertheless,!there!

are! clear! differences! between! the! assessments! of! different! piropos.!

Thus,! for! example,! female! participants! considered! that! certain! piropos!

were!clearly!unpleasant!(e.g.,!“If!your!ass!were!a!bank,!I!would!stick!it!

[penis]!in!a!fixedOterm!deposit!account!”),!whereas!others!did!not!seem!

unpleasant!to!them!(e.g.,!“Your!smile!would!brighten!anyone’s!mood.”)!

! Additionally,! Tables! 1! and! 2! show! that! female! participants!

seemed! to! agree! that! piropos! are! generally! objectifying.! The! mean!

scores! for! piropos! for! the! dimensions! that! address! this! issue! attest! to!

this!finding:!“treats!the!women!as!an!object,!not!a!person”;!“treats!the!

woman!as!existing!simply!for!the!man’s!enjoyment”;!and!“portrays!the!

woman! by! focusing! on! a! single! part! of! her! body.”! Nevertheless,! there!

were! also! clear! differences! between! piropos.! For! example,! under! the!

dimension! “treats! the! woman! as! an! object,! not! a! person,”! there! were!

piropos! that! scored! very! high! (e.g.,! “I! wish! I! were! a! pirate! but! not! for!

gold!or!silver—for!the!treasure!you!have!between!your!legs”),!whereas!

others! scored! low! (e.g.,! “Precious,! did! you! hurt! yourself! when! you! fell!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 133!
!

from! heaven?”).! A! similar! pattern! could! be! observed! using! the! other!

two!dimensions!related!to!objectification.!

Table!2.!Descriptive!statistics!for!all!of!the!“piropos”!under!the!different!
items!used!to!evaluate!them!(n!=!99)!in!Study!1.!
!

! Mínimum! Maximum! Mean! SD!

1.!Treats!the!woman!as!an!
2.00! 6.77! 5.01! .95!
object,!not!a!person!
2.!Treats!the!woman!as!existing!
simply!for!the!man’s!use!and! 2.69! 6.85! 4.95! .83!
enjoyment!
3.!Has!sexual!connotations! 2.92! 6.69! 4.91! .78!
4.!Expresses!that!the!man!
depends!on!and!needs!the! 1.08! 6.46! 3.3! 1.29!
woman!
5.!Expresses!a!positive!image!of!
1.00! 5.08! 2.93! .96!
the!woman!
6.!This!type!of!piropo!strikes!me!
2.38! 6.31! 4.36! .96!
as!unpleasant!
7.!Portrays!the!woman!by!
focusing!on!a!single!part!of!her! 2.46! 6.31! 4.18! .89!
body!

When! a! piropo! was! viewed! as! reflecting! a! positive! image! of! a!

woman,!it!tended!to!be!considered!nonOobjectifying!(see!Table!3).!Thus,!

for!example,!the!correlation!of!“reflects!a!positive!image!of!the!woman”!

with!“treats!the!woman!as!an!object,!not!a!person”!was!r!=!O.43,!p!<!.00;!

with!“portrays!the!woman!by!focusing!on!a!single!part!of!her!body,”!r!=!O

.32,!p!<!.00;!and!with!“treats!the!woman!as!existing!simply!for!the!man’s!

use!and!enjoyment,”!r!=!O.43,!p!<!.00.!
134! CHAPTER!3!
!

Table! 3.! Correlations! between! items! against! which! the! piropos! were!
evaluated!(n!=!99)!in!Study!1.!
!

! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!

1.!Treats!the!woman!as!an! 1! .83**! .67**! .17! O.43**! .65**! .54**!

object,!not!a!person!
2.!Treats!the!woman!as! !
existing!simply!for!the!man’s! 1! .73**! .24*! O.43**! .6**! .56**!
use!and!enjoyment!
3.!Has!sexual!connotations! ! ! 1! .18! O.33**! .56**! .52**!
4.!Expresses!that!the!man! !
depends!on!and!needs!the! ! ! 1! .38**! .07! .12!
woman!
5.!Expresses!a!positive!image! !
! ! ! 1! O.52**! O.32**!
of!the!woman!
6.!This!type!of!piropo!strikes! !
! ! ! ! 1! .47**!
me!as!unpleasant!
7.!Portrays!the!woman!by! !
focusing!on!a!single!part!of! ! ! ! ! ! O!
her!body!
!
Discussion!

This! exploratory! study! allowed! us! to! collect! a! broad! range! of!

piropos! that! are! used! in! contemporary! Spain.! Furthermore,! the! results!

allowed! us! to! confirm! our! hypothesis! that! piropos! can! be! considered!

objectifying,! judging! by! the! assessments! of! their! recipients! (male!

participants,! although! fewer! in! number,! agreed! with! the! women’s!

assessments! in! this! regard).! Thus,! participants! felt! fairly! strongly! that!

most!piropos!treat!a!woman!as!an!object,!not!as!a!person;!treat!her!as!

existing! simply! for! the! man’s! use! and! enjoyment;! have! sexual!

connotations;!and!portray!the!woman!by!focusing!on!a!single!part!of!her!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 135!
!

body.! Taking! into! account! that! objectification! has! been! defined! as!

“...the! experience! of! being! treated! as! a! body! (or! a! collection! of! body!

parts)!valued!predominantly!for!its!use!to!(or!consumption!by)!others”!

(Fredrickson!and!Roberts,!1997,!p.!174),!the!consideration!of!piropos!as!

objectifying! behaviors! is! clearly! acceptable.! Nevertheless,! despite! this!

general! tendency! to! perceive! piropos! as! objectifying,! the! results!

indicated! a! certain! amount! of! variability! in! perceptions:! some! piropos!

were! clearly! perceived! as! objectifying,! and! others! were! not.! Similarly,!

although! the! mean! scores! also! indicated! that! piropos! were! perceived!

negatively,! once! again,! one! could! observe! that! there! are! piropos! on!

either! extreme! of! the! scale.! Especially! relevant! is! the! finding! that! the!

more! positively! the! piropo! was! rated,! the! less! objectifying! it! was!

considered.! Given! the! numerous! negative! consequences! of!

objectification,! failing! to! detect! objectifying! behaviors! as! such,! when!

these! behaviors! are! masked! by! a! facade! of! praise! or! assignation! of!

value,!represents!a!clear!risk.!

Study!2!

!! Study! 1! allowed! us! to! identify! piropos! that! are! perceived!

positively! by! women! and! others! that! are! perceived! negatively.! This!

identification! connects! with! the! debate! already! mentioned,! in! which!

some!women!have!protested!against!all!types!of!piropos!(whether!they!

are! lewd! and! brusque! or! flattering! and! positive)! whereas! others! reject!

the! former! but! consider! the! latter! acceptable.! In! Study! 2,! we! selected!
136! CHAPTER!3!
!

two!piropos!that!reflected!this!polarity:!“I!better!not!find!out!that!that!

ass!goes!hungry!”!and!“Giiiirl,!careful!with!those!bonbons,!they!melt!in!

the! sun,”! and! analyzed! some! of! their! consequences! for! women! when!

they!received!them.!As!observed!in!Study!1,!regarding!the!first!piropo,!

the! female! participants! thought! that! women! were! clearly! objectified!

(treated! as! an! object,! treated! as! existing! simply! for! the! man’s! use! and!

enjoyment,! portraying! the! woman! by! focusing! only! on! one! part! of! her!

body,!etc.)!and!viewed!in!a!negative!light!(e.g.,!the!piropo!did!not!reflect!

a!positive!image!of!women).!By!contrast,!with!the!piropo!“Giiiirl,!careful!

with! those! bonbons,! they! melt! in! the! sun,”! although! the! women!

perceived! it! as! objectifying—albeit! to! a! lesser! degree! than! the! other!

piropo—it!was!viewed!less!negatively.!

! In! this! study,! we! used! scenario! methodology;! that! is,! we! asked!

the! women! to! imagine! that! they! were! receiving! the! piropos.! We! also!

included!a!control!group!that!answered!the!questionnaires!but!without!

being!exposed!to!any!type!of!piropo.!

! The! main! issue! posed! in! this! second! study! regarded! learning!

about!women’s!reactions!to!being!exposed!to!two!very!different!types!

of! piropos.! Thus,! we! specifically! explored! the! emotions! of! joy,! anger,!

sadnessOdepression,! and! anxiety.! This! selection! of! emotional! reactions!

was! based! on! suggestions! such! as! those! of! Watson! and! Clark! (1997),!

who! recommend! an! assessment! of! moods,! including! fear/anxiety,!

sadness/depression,! frustration/hostility,! together! with! some! type! of!

positive! affect,! when! studying! emotional! states.! Additionally,! we!

 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 137!
!

included! items! in! our! study! to! measure! feelings! of! power! and!

helplessness! because! some! women! claim! to! feel! powerful! when! they!

receive! piropos! (e.g.,! Ferreras,! 2015).! In! contrast,! those! who! dislike!

piropos! feel! like! the! piropos! invade! their! personal! space,! which! makes!

them!feel!vulnerable!(e.g.,!“La!Presidenta,”!2015).!

! We!expected!to!find!that!women’s!reactions!would!be!generally!

more! positive! (that! is,! that! they! would! react! with! greater! joy! and!

feelings!of!power!and!with!less!anger,!sadnessOdepression,!anxiety,!and!

helplessness)! when! the! piropo! in! question! was! gallant! compared! to!

when! it! was! lewd! and! that! the! reactions! to! lewd! piropos! would! be!

clearly!negative!compared!to!the!control.!By!contrast,!we!did!not!have!

clear! expectations! about! whether! being! exposed! to! a! gallant! piropo!

would! make! women! feel! better! or! worse! than! those! who! were! not!

exposed! to! any! piropo! at! all.! As! we! have! indicated,! some! people! have!

defended!the!rejection!of!all!types!of! piropos,!including!those!that! are!

flattering! (“La! Presidenta”,! 2015).! If! this! vision! were! broadly! accepted,!

then!the!implication!would!be!that!women!who!were!exposed!to!gallant!

piropos! ought! to! feel! worse! than! members! of! the! control! group,! who!

did! not! receive! any! piropo.! However,! other! people! have! vindicated!

gallant!piropos,!claiming!that!all!women!like!to!hear!piropos!if!they!are!

kind! and! flattering! (Venclovská,! 2006).! In! the! latter! case,! one! would!

expect! that! women! exposed! to! gallant! piropos! would! feel! better! than!

those! who! were! not! exposed! to! any! piropos.! The! data! from! Study! 1!
138! CHAPTER!3!
!

suggest!that!even!when!a!gallant!piropo!is!perceived!as!objectifying,!it!is!

not!viewed!either!negatively!or!as!objectifying!as!a!lewd!piropo.!

! Two! measures! that! are! common! in! selfOobjectification! studies!

were! also! included:! the! SelfOSurveillance! and! Body! Shame! subscales! of!

the! Objectified! Body! Consciousness! Scale! (OBCS)! (McKinley! and! Hyde,!

1996).!The!goal!was!to!analyze!whether!imagining!themselves!receiving!

a! piropo! increased! women’s! levels! of! selfOobjectification! within! these!

two!dimensions!or!whether!the!scores!within!these!measures!reflected!

a!tempered!reaction!to!piropos.!

! The!final!goal!of!this!study!was!to!analyze!whether!reactions!to!

piropos! depended! on! how! they! were! assessed.! Participants! who!

imagined!themselves!receiving!the!lewd!and!gallant!piropos!(not!those!

in!the!control!group)!were!asked!to!assess!the!piropo!against!a!series!of!

dimensions! (fun,! chauvinism,! flattery,! etc.).! These! assessments! were!

grouped! into! only! one! score,! such! that! higher! scores! reflected! more!

negative!attitudes!towards!the!piropo!in!question.!We!expected!to!find!

that! the! less! negative! the! attitude! towards! a! piropo! was,! the! less!

negative!the!reactions!to!that!piropo!(that!is,!that!greater!feelings!of!joy!

and! power,! the! fewer! feelings! of! anger,! sadness,! anxiety,! and!

helplessness! would! be! induced! in! the! participants).! As! we! have!

indicated,!we!believe!that!these!relationships!would!appear!both!when!

the!piropo!was!lewd!and!when!it!was!gallant.!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 139!
!

Method!

Participants!

A! total! of! 148! women! under! the! age! of! 25! participated,! all! of!

whom!were!college!students!at!the!moment!of!the!study!or!had!been!in!

the!past.!The!mean!age!was!22.14!years!(SD!=!1.66).!

Procedure!

A!message,!supported!by!the!School!of!Psychology!at!a!university!

in! the! south! of! Spain,! was! sent! using! a! social! network! to! ask! for!

volunteers! to! participate! in! an! online! study! on! interpersonal! relations.!

Those!who!answered!the!questionnaire!would!be!included!in!a!raffle!for!

three! prizes! of! 20! Euros.! For! the! study,! we! only! used! the! answers! of!

women!under!the!age!of!25!who!had!been,!or!currently!were,!university!

students.!

! We! conducted! an! experimental! study! using! hypothetical!

scenario!methodology!with!a!single!independent!variable!(exposure!to!a!

lewd! piropo! vs.! a! gallant! piropo! vs.! control).! A! total! of! 51! participants!

were!assigned!to!the!control!group,!47!to!the!benevolent!piropo!group,!

and!50!to!the!hostile!piropo!group.!

! In!the!“piropo”!groups,!participants!were!asked!to!imagine!that!

they!were!experiencing!the!following!scenario.!

“Imagine!that!you!are!in!the!following!situation:!

!! You! are! walking! along! the! street! alone.! You! are! walking! briskly!

and! thinking! to! yourself! without! paying! too! much! attention! to! what! is!
140! CHAPTER!3!
!

going!on!around!you.!When!you!cross!the!road,!you!realize!that!you!are!

about!to!pass!by!a!square!where!a!group!of!young!lads!are!sitting!on!a!

bench! and! looking! at! you.! You! continue! walking! and! pass! by! without!

looking!at!them!or!paying!attention!to!what!they!are!doing.!Then,!as!you!

are!passing,!one!raises!his!voice!and!says!to!you:!!

“(one%of%the%two%piropos%appeared%here)”%

The!gallant!piropo!was:!“Giiiirl,!careful!with!those!bonbons,!they!

melt!in!the!sun!”!In!the!lewd!piropo!group,!the!piropo!was:!“I!better!not!

find!out!that!that!ass!goes!hungry!”!

Subsequently,! participants! answered! the! dependent! measures,!

which! appeared! in! the! order! in! which! they! are! listed! in! the! following!

section.! In! the! case! of! the! control! group,! participants! answered! the!

measures!directly!without!being!previously!exposed!to!any!scenario.!

1)! Mood! and! emotions.! Participants! in! the! experimental!

conditions! were! asked! to! answer! the! 16! items! of! the! Scale! for! Mood!

Assessment! (Escala! de! Valoración! del! Estado! de! Ánimo! O! EVEA)! (Sanz,!

2001)!immediately!after!reading!the!scenario.!We!wanted!to!determine!

the! mood! that! they! thought! they! would! experience! if! they! found!

themselves! in! a! situation! like! that! described! (participants! from! the!

control! group! were! asked! to! indicate! how! they! felt! at! that! moment).!

The! EVEA! assesses! four! moods,! each! of! which! is! measured! by! four!

items:!sadnessNdepression!(melancholy,!depressed,!downcast,!and!sad);!

anxiety! (nervous,! tense,! anxious,! and! restless);! happiness! (happy,!

optimistic,! joyful,! and! cheerful);! and! angerNhostility! (irritated,! angry,!

 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 141!
!

annoyed,! and! displeased).! The! response! format! ranges! from! 0! (not! at!

all)! to! 10! (very! much).! The! EVEA! measure! has! shown! a! high! internal!

consistency! (with! alphas! between! .86! and! .92! for! sadnessOdepression;!

between! .92! and! .94! for! anxiety;! between! .93! and! .95! for! angerO

hostility;! and! between! .88! and! .96! for! happiness;! Sanz,! Gutiérrez,! and!

GarcíaOVera,! 2014).! It! has! also! been! demonstrated! that! the! EVEA! has!

appropriate!testOretest!reliability!and!discriminant!validity!(Sanz,!2001).!

In! our! case,! the! reliability! coefficients! obtained! were! .90! for! sadnessO

depression,!.86!for!anxiety,!.96!for!angerOhostility!and!.91!for!happiness.!

2)! Sense! of! power! and! discomfort/helplessness.! Twelve! items,!

used! in! previous! studies! (MoyaOGarófano,! RodríguezOBailón,! Megías! &!

Moya,! 2015),! were! also! included! to! measure! the! sense! of! power! (α! =!

.81)! and! discomfort/helplessness! (α! =! .90)! experienced! by! participants!

after!facing!the!situation!previously!described.!The!response!format!was!

the!same!as!that!of!the!EVEA.!Examples!of!the!six!items!that!compose!

the! power! dimension! are! as! follows:! “I! would! feel! powerful”! and! “I!

would! feel! in! control! of! the! situation.”! Examples! of! the! six! items! that!

compose! the! discomfort/helplessness! dimension! are! as! follows:! “I!

would!feel!weak”!and!“I!would!feel!humiliated.”!As!with!the!EVEA!scale,!

participants! in! the! control! group! answered! these! same! power! and!

discomfort/helplessness! items;! however,! they! were! asked! to! answer!

according!to!how!they!felt!at!that!moment.!!!

3)!SelfNObjectification.!We!used!the!Spanish!version!of!the!Body!

Surveillance! Subscale! of! the! OBCS! (McKinley! and! Hyde,! 1996;! Spanish!
142! CHAPTER!3!
!

version! by! MoyaOGarófano,! Megías,! RodríguezOBailón,! and! Moya,! in!

press).! The! surveillance! subscale! is! based! on! the! idea! that! women!

constantly!monitor!their!bodies!to!ensure!that!they!fit!in!the!canons!of!

beauty! as! a! response! of! being! continuously! sexually! objectified.!

Participants!indicate!their!agreement!or!disagreement!with!each!of!the!

eight! statements!presented!by!the!subscale!using!a!7Opoint!LikertOtype!

answer!format!ranging!from!1!(strongly!disagree)!to!7!(totally!agree)!(4!

being!neither!agree!nor!disagree);!in!each!item,!the!alternative!response!

NA!(if!they!consider!that!the!item!is!not!applicable)!also!appears.!A!high!

score!indicates!that!the!person!monitors!his/her!appearance!and!often!

thinks! about! how! his/her! body! looks;! a! low! score! indicates! that! the!

individual! rarely! selfOsurveys! his/her! appearance! and! instead! tends! to!

focus!on!how!s/he!feels!on!a!physical!level.!An!example!of!an!item!is!“I!

often!worry!about!whether!the!clothes!I’m!wearing!look!good!on!me.”!

The!Body!Surveillance!subscale!scores!have!been!found!to!be!internally!

consistent! and! stable! over! a! 2Oweek! period! and! have! demonstrated!

evidence!of!construct!validity!(McKinley!and!Hyde,!1996).!In!this!study,!

the!alpha!coefficient!of!this!subscale!was!.79.!

4)!Body!Shame.!The!Spanish!version!of!the!Body!Shame!Subscale!

of! the! OBCS! (McKinley! and! Hyde,! 1996;! Spanish! version! by! MoyaO

Garófano! et! al.,! in! press)! was! used.! The! Body! Shame! subscale! aims! to!

assess! the! internalization! of! cultural! body! standards,! given! that! it! is!

understood! that! shame! arises! from! the! impossibility! of! attaining! this!

imposed! ideal! of! beauty.! It! consists! of! eight! items! with! the! same!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 143!
!

response!format!as!the!previous!scale.!A!high!score!on!this!scale!would!

indicate!that!the!person!feels!that!s/he!is!less!valid!if!s/he!does!not!fulfill!

cultural!expectations!of!how!the!body!must!be.!In!contrast,!people!who!

have! low! scores! do! not! observe! that! their! personal! value! is! reduced! if!

they!do!not!conform!to!such!body!expectations.!An!example!of!an!item!

is! “I! feel! bad! when! I! don’t! look! as! good! as! I! could.”! The! Body! Shame!

subscale!scores!have!been!found!to!be!internally!consistent!and!stable!

over!a!2Oweek!period!and!related!to!measures!of!negative!body!image!

(McKinley! and! Hyde,! 1996).! In! the! present! study,! the! alpha! coefficient!

for!Body!Surveillance!was!.83.!

5)! Attitude! regarding! piropos.! At! the! end! of! the! questionnaire,!

seven!items!were!used!to!measure!participants’!perceptions!of!piropos!

(“flattering”! or! “lewd,”! depending! on! the! condition).! Only! the! women!

who! were! exposed! to! one! of! the! two! piropos,! not! the! control! group,!

answered! this! measure.! The! answer! format! was! a! 7Opoint! LikertOtype!

scale!ranging!from!1!(not!at!all)!to!7!(very!much).!These!items!were!as!

follows:!fun,!pleasant,!flattering,!chauvinistic,!offensive,!unpleasant,!and!

(induces)! disgust.! Once! the! scores! were! inverted! for! the! first! three!

items,! the! mean! score! was! calculated! for! all! of! the! items! (α! =! .91).!

Higher!scores!indicate!more!negative!attitudes!to!the!piropo.!
144! CHAPTER!3!
!

Results!

Effects!of!the!piropos.!!

All! of! the! dependent! variables! were! analyzed! using! oneOway,!

threeOlevel! analysis! of! variance! (ANOVA),! with! the! “piropo”! condition!

(lewd!piropo,!gallant!piropo,!and!control)!as!the!betweenOsubjects!factor!

(see! Table! 4).! As! expected,! main! effects! of! the! “piropo”! condition! on!

happiness,!F(2,!148)!=!17.16,!p!<!.001,!η2!=!.14,!anger,!F(2,!148)!=!3.04,!p!

<!.001,!η2!=!.10,!sadnessOdepression,!F(2,!148)!=!49.69,!p!<!.001,!η2!=!.34,!

anxiety,!F(2,!148)!=!8.96,!p!<!.001,!η2!=!.08,!feelings!of!helplessness,!F(2,!

148)!=!7.12,!p!<!.01,!η2!=!.06,!and!feelings!of!power,!F(2,!148)!=!12.82,!p!

<!.001,!η2!=!.12,!were!observed!.!Post!hoc!Bonferroni!tests!revealed!that!

women! in! the! lewd! piropo! condition! reported! significantly! less!

happiness! than! women! in! the! control! condition! (p! <! .001)! and! in! the!

gallant!piropo!condition,!(p!=!.03).!The!lewd!piropo!also!increased!anger!

in! relation! to! the! control! condition,! (p! <! .001).! The! same! pattern! was!

found! in! the! case! of! anxiety! (p! <! .01).! Compared! to! the! control!

condition,! sadnessOdepression! was! significantly! higher! among! women!

exposed! to! the! lewd! piropo! (p! <! .001)! and! women! exposed! to! the!

gallant!piropo!(p!<!.001).!Women!in!the!lewd!piropo!condition!reported!

significantly! more! feelings! of! helplessness! than! women! in! the! control!

condition! (p! =! .017),! and! the! gallant! piropo! condition,! (p! =! .047)! and!

women! in! the! lewd! piropo! condition! reported! significantly! less!

 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 145!
!

perceptions! of! power! than! women! in! the! control! condition! (p! <! .001)!

and!in!the!gallant!piropo!condition,!(p!=!.04)!(see!Table!4).!!

Table!4.!Means!(and!Standard!Deviations)!for!Measures!by!Experimental!
Condition.!

Gallant!
Lewd!Piropo! Control!
piropo!
Measure!
N!=!50! N!=!51!
N!=!47!

EVEA!happiness! 3.82!(2.32)a! 5.11!(2.43)b! 6.29!(2.2)b!

EVEA!angerOhostility! 5.45!(3.03)!a! 3.99!(2.78)! 2.91!(2.4)b!

EVEA!sadnessOdepression! 1.77!(1.09)!a! 1.69!(1.09)a! 4.38!(2.46)b!

EVEA!anxiety! 5.97!(2.57)a! 4.65!(2.27)! 4.17!(2.4)b!

Helplessness!feelings! 4.09!(2.57)!a! 2.96!(1.69)b! 2.74!(1.9)b!

Power!feelings! 3.71!(2.17)!a! 4.56!(2.15)b! 5.59!(1.78)b!

Body!Surveillance! 4.7!(1.04)! 4.46!(1.16)! 4.51!(1.00)!

Body!Shame!
3.43!(1.39)! 3.13!(1.33)! 3.49!(1.30)!
!
Note:!!Means!with!different!subscripts!across!rows!differ!significantly!at!
p!<.05.!
!

The!overall!effects!of!the!condition!on!SelfOsurveillance,!F(2,!148)!

=!1.08,!p!=!.34,!η2!=!.015!and!Body!Shame,!F(2,!148)!=!.89,!p!=!.41,!η2!=!

.012,!were!not!significant.!!

In!the!case!of!items!used!to!assess!the!piropo,!as!shown!in!Figure!

1,!there!were!significant!differences!in!the!evaluations!of!the!gallant!and!

lewd!piropos!on!all!of!the!scales!(all!scales!were!p!<!.001,!except!in!the!
146! CHAPTER!3!
!

case! of! unpleasant,! where! p! <! .01,! and! disgust,! where! p! <! .05).! The!

gallant!piropo!was!perceived!as!more!fun,!pleasant,!and!flattering,!and!

the! lewd! piropo! was! perceived! as! more! chauvinistic,! unpleasant,!

offensive,!and!disgustOinducing.!

Figure!1.!Assessments!of!lewd!and!gallant!piropos!(Study!2).!

As!we!indicated,!we!expected!to!find!that!if!a!piropo!was!judged!

to! be! less! negative,! then! the! participants’! reactions! of! joy! and! power!

would! be! greater! and! the! participants’! reactions! of! anger,! sadness,!

anxiety,! and! helplessness! would! be! less.! We! also! thought! that! these!

relationships! would! be! independent! of! the! type! of! piropo! (lewd! or!

gallant).!To!test!these!ideas,!we!entered!the!type!of!piropo!manipulation!

(coded! 1! =! lewd,! 0! =! gallant)! and! the! scores! in! the! negative! piropo!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 147!
!

evaluation! items! (centered),! in! addition! to! their! product,! into! several!

multiple!lineal!regressions,!one!for!each!emotion!considered!(happiness,!

angerOhostility,! sadnessOdepression,! anxiety,! and! feelings! of! powerful!

and!helplessness).!

In!most!of!the!measures,!we!only!found!significant!main!effects!

of!the!piropo’s!evaluation.!Thus,!the!less!negatively!the!women!judged!

the!piropo!to!be,!the!greater!joy,!b!=!O.88,!t!=!O4.93,!p!<!.000,!CI!=![O1.24,!O

.53],! less! anger,! b! =! 1.48,! t! =! 8.71,! p! <! .000,! CI! =! [1.15,! 1.83],! less!

discomfort/helplessness,! b! =! .52,! t! =! 3.22,! p! <! .00,! CI! =! [.2,! .84],!

marginally!less!sadness,!b!=!.19,!t!=!1.95,!p!=!.054,!CI!=![O.003,!.4];!and!

more! power,! b! =! O.62,! t! =! O3.67,! p! <! .000,! CI! =! [O.95! O.28],! they!

experienced.!Only!in!the!case!of!discomfort/helplessness!emotions!was!

the!negative!evaluation!of!the!piropo!x!the!type!of!piropo!significant,!b!=!

.68,!t!=!2.93,!p!<!.001,!CI!=![.22,!1.14].!Simple!slopes!tests!showed!that!

the! relationship! between! a! negative! evaluation! of! the! piropo! and!

discomfort/helplessness! was! stronger! when! the! piropo! was! lewd,! b! =!

1.2,!t!=!67.53,!p!<!.000,!CI!=![.83,!1.57],!than!when!it!was!gallant,!b!=!.52,!

t!=!3.69!p!=!.001,!CI!=![.24,!.8].!

Discussion!

As!we!expected,!women!exposed!to!the!lewd!piropo!experienced!

different!feelings!and!emotions!than!those!in!the!control!group:!less!joy,!

sadness,!and!power!and!greater!anxiety,!discomfort!and!anger.!Clearly,!

then,!the!aversive!nature!and!the!negative!emotional!consequences!of!
148! CHAPTER!3!
!

this! type! of! piropo! are! confirmed.! The! consequences! and! reactions! to!

the!gallant!piropo!were!less!clear!because!there!were!only!differences!in!

sadness! when! compared! to! the! control! group.! Those! exposed! to! the!

lewd! piropo! experienced! greater! joy,! less! helplessness,! and! greater!

feelings! of! power.! Therefore,! although! the! gallant! piropo! does! not!

provoke! reactions! as! negative! as! the! lewd! piropo,! it! does! not! produce!

positive! reactions! when! compared! to! situations! in! which! participants!

are!not!exposed!to!piropos!at!all.!

! The! results! have! also! shown! that! women’s! reactions! to! both!

types! of! piropos! depend! on! their! perception! of! them! (independent! of!

the!type!of!piropo):!when!piropos!were!evaluated!less!negatively,!they!

produced!greater!joy!and!feelings!of!power!and!less!anger,!helplessness,!

and!(marginally)!sadness.!This!result!suggests!that!the!important!finding!

from! this! study! on! the! consequences! of! piropos! concerns! how! women!

subjectively! perceive! the! piropos,! that! is,! their! attitudes! towards!

piropos.!

!! Given!that!in!this!study!some!women!assessed!a!lewd!piropo!and!

others! a! gallant! piropo,! we! do! not! know! how! an! individual! woman!

perceives!the!two!types!of!piropos.!We!know!that!women!who!assessed!

the! lewd! piropo! scored! it! more! negatively! than! did! the! women! who!

evaluated!the!gallant!piropo.!However,!how!would!an!individual!woman!

react! to! the! two! types! of! piropos?! Would! she! react! to! each!

independently,! or! would! her! judgments! be! related?! To! attempt! to!

respond!to!these!questions,!we!designed!Study!3.!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 149!
!

Study!3!

Method!

Participants!

A!total!of!37!female!college!students!participated.!The!mean!age!

was!=!23.92!years!(SD!=!2.93).!

Procedure!

In! this! case,! the! participants! were! approached! in! two! different!

university!libraries!and!asked!to!voluntarily!participate!in!the!study.!The!

students!completed!a!questionnaire!in!which!they!were!presented!with!

10! different! piropos.! Four! different! questionnaire! models! were! used.!

With! the! goal! of! randomization,! these! differed! only! in! the! order! in!

which! the! piropos! were! presented.! Each! piropo! had! to! be! evaluated!

against!the!same!seven!items!used!in!Study!2!to!measure!the!perception!

of! a! given! expression! on! the! part! of! the! participants:! fun,! pleasant,!

flattering,! chauvinistic,! (it! seems)! offensive,! unpleasant,! and! (inducing)!

disgust.!Once!the!first!three!items!were!inverted,!an!overall!mean!score!

was!calculated!to!assess!each!piropo.!Given!that!our!aim!is!to!show!how!

women! themselves! evaluate! the! two! piropos! used! in! Study! 2,! we! will!

only! comment! on! the! results! relating! to! those! piropos! (α! =! .82! for! “I!

better! not! find! out! that! that! ass! goes! hungry!”! and! α! =! .91! for! “Giiiirl,!

careful!with!those!bonbons,!they!melt!in!the!sun”).!
150! CHAPTER!3!
!

Results!and!discussion!

! As!in!Study!2,!the!participants!perceived!the!gallant!piropo!more!

positively!than!the!lewd!piropo!(see!Figure!2).!

With! the! goal! of! analyzing! whether! the! scores! for! the! two!

piropos!covariated,!we!conducted!a!correlation!analysis!using!the!scores!

obtained!for!general!attitudes!towards!the!piropo!“I!better!not!find!out!

that!that!ass!goes!hungry,”!and!towards!the!piropo!“Giiiirl,!careful!with!

those! bonbons,! they! melt! in! the! sun.”! The! results! showed! that! both!

assessments!correlated!to!a!significant!and!positive!degree,!r!=!.67,!p!<!

.01.!

Figure!2.!Assessments!of!lewd!and!gallant!piropos!by!the!participants!in!
Study!3.!
! !

These! results! indicate! that! a! woman’s! assessment! of! a! clearly!

lewd! piropo! is! related! to! her! assessment! of! a! gallant! and! flattering!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 151!
!

piropo.!That!is,!the!common!opinion!that!women!seem!to!like!one!type!

of! piropo! (gallant)! but! not! others! (hostile)! must! be! qualified:! to! the!

degree!that!women!like!piropos!(or!not),!they!also!tend!to!like!(or!not)!

others!that!seem!very!different,!such!that!one!can!observe!a!relatively!

high! correlation! between! the! overall! assessments! of! the! two! types! of!

piropos.!

Overall!discussion!

! Women!continue!to!receive!objectifying!behavior!from!strangers!

on! a! daily! basis.! In! our! study,! we! have! focused! on! piropos! directed!

towards!women!(those!directed!towards!men!are!clearly!infrequent!and!

a!relatively!recent!phenomenon)!by!strangers.!Despite!their!prevalence!

in!Hispanic!culture!and!despite!the!major!debates!surrounding!piropos,!

psychosocial! research! concerning! this! form! of! objectification! is!

practically!nonexistent.!

! A! primary! goal! of! our! study! was! to! collect! a! broad! number! of!

piropos!that!are!currently!used!in!Spain!and!to!analyze!whether!women!

perceived! them! as! objectifying! and! whether! they! assessed! them!

positively! or! negatively.! With! regard! to! whether! piropos! can! be!

considered! objectifying! behavior,! prior! empirical! evidence! used! to!

analyze! this! issue! does! not! exist,! although! data! on! the! convergence!

between!piropos’!characteristics!and!the!concept!of!objectification!can!

characterized! as! such.! Regarding! whether! women! view! piropos!

positively!or!negatively,!there!exists!a!certain!level!of!debate!in!Spanish!
152! CHAPTER!3!
!

society! that! reveals! that! although! some! women! reject! all! types! of!

piropos,!others!reject!some!(e.g.,!those!that!are!clearly!lewd!and!hostile)!

but!accept!those!that!have!a!kinder!and!more!flattering!tone.!

! The! results! of! our! first! study! confirm! that! piropos! are! a! type! of!

behavior! that! can! be! considered! objectifying:! the! participants! felt!

strongly!that!the!majority!of!piropos!treat!the!woman!as!an!object,!not!a!

person,!treat!her!as!existing!simply!for!a!man’s!use!and!enjoyment,!and!

focus!only!on!one!part!of!her!body.!However,!it!must!also!be!noted!that!

there! was! a! certain! level! of! variability! among! these! perceptions,! with!

some!piropos!that!were!clearly!viewed!as!objectifying!and!others!as!less!

so.! Regarding! the! second! issue,! the! results! showed! that! piropos! are!

assessed!negatively!overall,!although!once!again,!one!can!observe!that!

there!are!piropos!that!are!clearly!perceived!as!negative!and!others!that!

are!perceived!as!positive,!reflecting!the!diversity!of!positions!that!exist!

within!Spanish!society.!

! An! important! result! from! the! first! study! was! the! negative!

relationship! found! between! the! assessments! of! the! piropos! and!

whether! these! were! considered! objectifying! behavior:! the! better! a!

piropo!was!assessed!to!be,!the!less!objectifying!it!was!perceived!to!be.!

Given! that! studies! have! shown! that! objectification! has! numerous!

serious! and! negative! consequences! (Calogero,! TantleffODunn,! and!

Thompson,!2011),!not!considering!some!piropos!objectifying,!especially!

when! they! are! masked! by! a! positive! tone,! could! have! serious!

consequences!for!gender!equality.!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 153!
!

! This!study’s!second!objective!was!to!deepen!our!understanding!

of!reactions!to!two!prototypical!piropos,!one!more!vulgar!and!the!other!

“milder.”! First,! we! hoped! to! observe! whether! a! clearly! hostile! piropo!

had! negative! consequences! and,! similarly,! whether! a! clearly! flattering!

piropo! had! the! supposed! positive! consequences! that! some! women!

claim.! The! findings! of! the! second! study! confirmed! the! aversive! nature!

and! the! negative! consequences! of! the! lewd! piropo:! Compared! to! the!

control!group,!women!exposed!to!the!lewd!piropo!experienced!less!joy!

and!power!and!greater!anger,!anxiety,!and!discomfort.!In!the!case!of!the!

gallant!piropo,!the!consequences!were!not!as!negative!as!they!were!for!

the! group! exposed! to! the! hostile! piropo,! but! the! scores! for! the!

supposedly!positive!reactions!(e.g.,!joy,!power)!were!never!higher!than!

those! from! the! control! group.! Thus,! the! supposed! goodness! of! some!

types!of!piropos,!vindicated!by!some!women!(Ferreras,!2015),!cannot!be!

observed! in! the! results! of! our! study.! Furthermore,! our! results! showed!

that! the! lewd! and! gallant! piropos! are! not! different! in! nature,! because!

the!reactions!to!the!both!of!them!are!highly!correlated.!

! The! results! have! also! shown! that! women’s! reactions! to! both!

types!of!piropos!depended!on!the!attitude!that!they!had!towards!them,!

independent!of!the!type!of!piropo.!As!such,!a!woman’s!assessment!of!a!

clearly! lewd! piropo! correlated! positively! with! her! assessment! of! a!

gallant! and! flattering! piropo.! That! is,! the! apparently! common! opinion!

that! women! seem! to! like! one! type! of! piropo! (gallant)! but! not! others!

(hostile),! although! confirmed! by! our! studies,! must! be! qualified:! to! the!
154! CHAPTER!3!
!

degree!that!women!assess!lewd!piropos!as!better!(or!worse),!they!also!

assess!gallant!piropos!as!better!(or!worse).!

! In!a!society!in!which!all!people’s!rights!are!respected,!women!do!

not!need!to!accept!or!consent!to!behaviors!that!can!be!unpleasant!for!

them! or! have! any! type! of! noxious! effect! on! them.! The! reason! is,! first,!

regardless!of!whether!they!reject!all!piropos!or!accept!them!to!a!certain!

degree,! their! consequences! continue! to! be! negative.! Similarly,! for!

women!who!reject!piropos,!these!negative!consequences!are!even!more!

pronounced.!Even!for!women!who!positively!assess!piropos,!considering!

them! to! be! fun,! pleasant,! and! not! very! chauvinistic! or! offensive,! they!

can! involve! certain! risks.! Just! as! studies! of! ambivalent! sexism! have!

shown! that! women! who! feel! good! when! they! experience! benevolent!

sexist! behavior! or! when! they! accept! benevolent! sexist! ideology! are! at!

risk! of! suffering! gender! discrimination! in! more! subtle! ways! (given! that!

these! behaviors! and! ideologies! are! not! perceived! as! sexist)! (Barreto! &!

Ellemers,!2005;!et!al.,!2007),!women!who!positively!assess!piropos!can!

also!be!at!risk!of!not!perceiving!discriminatory!situations.!

This!research!has!a!number!of!limitations.!First,!the!participants!

in!our!studies!were!or!had!been!university!women!and!may!have!been!

more!sensitive!to!gender!discrimination.!We!must!broaden!the!study!to!

include! more! diverse! samples! of! women,! especially! if! we! hope! to!

understand!women’s!reactions!to!and!assessments!of! piropos.!Second,!

the! use! of! scenario! methodology! cannot! replace! the! realOworld! piropo!

situations! that! happen! to! women! in! the! street! every! day.! Despite! the!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 155!
!

sensitive!nature!of!more!realistic!studies!on!this!behavior,!it!is!true!that!

it! would! be! interesting! to! explore! new! approximations! and! observe!

whether!the!results!can!be!replicated.!Finally,!we!must!note!the!lack!of!

impact!that!piropos!have!on!women’s!selfOobjectification.!We!think!that!

having!used!subscales!without!adapting!the!instructions!to!reflect!selfO

objectification! in! a! specific! moment! (rather! than! a! permanent! feature!

that!is!relatively!insensitive!to!situational!variations)!may!have!affected!

the!results.!!!!

Having! said! that,! despite! these! limitations,! we! believe! that! this!

research! adds! new! knowledge! to! the! study! of! piropos,! a! common!

phenomenon,!in!certain!countries,!about!which!we!still!know!very!little.!

This!study!has!enabled!us!to!analyze,!for!the!first!time,!how!piropos!are!

perceived!and!to!explore!some!of!their!negative!consequences.!!

! !

!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 156!
!

References!

Agudo,!A.!(2015,!January!19).!Carmona,!no!estás!sola![Carmona,!you!are!

not!alone].![Web!log!post].!Retrieved!from:!!

! http://blogs.elpais.com/mujeres/2015/01/carmonaOnoOestásO

sola.html!

Astakhova,!E.!(2014).!Piropo!como!fenómeno!lingüístico!y!sociocultural!

en! el! espacio! español! [Piropo! as! a! linguistic! and! sociocultural!

phenomenon! in! Spanish! space].! In:! A.! Orlov! (Ed.),! Cuadernos!

Iberoamericanos:! Vol.! 1! [Iberoamerican! Notebooks:! Vol.! 1]! (pp.!

99O108)! Moscow,! Russia:! MGIMO.! Proceedings! book! retrieved!

from:!!

! http://www.imi.mgimo.ru/images/pdf/Iberoamerikanskie_tetra

di/CI13.pdf#page=99!

Barreto,! M.,! &! Ellemers,! N.! (2005).! The! burden! of! benevolent! sexism:!

How! it! contributes! to! the! maintenance! of! gender! inequalities.!

European!Journal!of!Social!Psychology,!35,!633O642.!

Beinhauer,!W.!(1973).!"El!piropo".!El!humorismo!en!el!español!hablado.!

["The!Piropo".!Humor!in!Spoken!Spanish.]!Madrid:!Gredos.!

Bohner,! G.,! &! Dickel,! N.! (2011).! Attitudes! and! attitude! change.! Annual!

Review! of! Psychology,! 62,! 391O417.!

doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131609!

Bowman,!C.!G.!(1993).!Street!harassment!and!the!informal!ghettoization!

of!women.!Harvard!Law!Review,!106,!517O580!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 157!
!

Calogero,! R.M.,! Herbozo,! S.,! &! Thompson,! K.! (2009).! Complimentary!

weightism:! The! potential! costs! of! appearanceOrelated!

commentary! for! women’s! selfOobjectification.! Psychology! of!

Women! Quarterly,! 33,! 120–! 132.! doi:10.1111/j.1471O

6402.2008.01479.x!

Calogero,! R.! M.,! TantleffODunn,! S.,! &! Thompson,! J.! K.! (2011).! SelfN

Objectification! in! women:! Causes,! consequences,! and!

counteractions.! Washington! DC:! American! Psychological!

Association.!doi:10.1037/12304O002!!

Carvajal,!S.!(2014).!El!piropo!callejero:!acción!política!y!ciudadana![The!

street! piropo:! political! and! citizen! action].! (Master! dissertation,!

Universidad! Andina! Simón! Bolivar,! Sede! Ecuador).! Retrieved!

from:!!

! http://repositorio.uasb.edu.ec/bitstream/10644/4094/1/T1460O

MECOCarvajalOEl%20piropo.pdf!

Davidson,!M.,!Gervais,!S.!J.,!&!Sherd,!L.!W.!(2013).!The!ripple!effects!of!

stranger! harassment! on! objectification! of! self! and! others.!

Psychology! of! Women! Quarterly,! 39,! 53O66.! doi:!

10.1177/0361684313514371!

Diosdado,!E.!(1996).!!Los!mejores!piropos![The!best!piropos].!Barcelona:!

Edicomunicación.!

“Eres! maravillosa”,! el! piropo! mejor! recibido! y! el! que! más! gusta! a! las!

españolas![“You’re!wonderful”,!the!best!received!and!most!liked!

piropo! among! Spanish! women].! (2009,! January! 29).! 20! minutos!

158! CHAPTER!3!
!

[20!minutes].!Retrieved!from:!!

! http://www.20minutos.es/noticia/348350/0/piropos/estudio/es

pana/#xtor=ADO15&xts=467263!

Fairchild,!K.!(2010).!Context!effects!on!women’s!perceptions!of!stranger!

harassment.! Sexuality! &! Culture,! 14,! 191O216.!

doi:10.1007/s12119O010O9070O1!

Fairchild,! K.,! &! Rudman,! L.! (2008).! Everyday! stranger! harassment! and!

women’s! objectification.! Social! Justice! Research,! 21,! 338–357.!

doi:10.1007/s11211O008O0073O0!

Ferreras,!C.!(2015,!January!15).!Quieren!prohibir!el!piropo![They!want!to!

forbid! the! piropo].! La! Opinión! de! Zamora! [Zamora’s! Opinion].!

Retrieved!from:!

http://www.laopiniondezamora.es/opinion/2015/01/15/quieren

OprohibirOpiropo/815536.html!

Fredrickson,! B.,! &! Roberts,! T.! (1997).! Objectification! Theory:! Toward!

understanding! women´s! lived! experiences! and! mental! health!

risks.! Psychology! of! Women! Quarterly,! 21,! 173O206.!

doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.1997.tb00108.x!!

Fridlizius,! N.! (2009).! Me! gustaría! ser! baldosa…Un! estudio! cualitativo!

sobre! el! uso! actual! de! los! piropos! callejeros! en! España! [I! would!

like!to!be!a!paving!stone…!A!qualitative!study!about!the!current!

use!of!street!piropos!in!Spain]!(Doctoral!dissertation,!Göteborgs!

Universitet).!Retrieved!from:!!

! https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/21649?mode=full!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 159!
!

GaytanOSánchez,! P.! (2009).! Del! piropo! al! desencanto.! Un! estudio!

sociológico! [From! the! piropo! to! the! disillusionment:! A!

sociological! study].! México:! Universidad! Autónoma!

Metropolitana!Unidad!Azcapotzalco.!

La!presidenta!del!Observatorio!contra!la!Violencia!de!Género!pide!que!

se! erradique! el! piropo! [The! president! of! the! Observatory! of!

Violence! against! women! ask! for! the! eradication! of! piropo].!

(2015,!January!9).!El!Periódico![The!Newspaper].!Retrieved!from:!!

http://www.elperiodico.com/es/noticias/sociedad/observatorioO

contraOviolenciaOgeneroOpideOvetarOpiropoO3838083!

Liss,! M.,! Erchull,! M.,! &! Ramsey,! L.! (2011).! Empowering! or! oppressing?!

Development!and!exploration!of!!the!Enjoyment!of!Sexualization!

Scale.! Personality! and! Social! Psychology! Bulletin,! 37,! 55O68.!

doi:10.1177/0146167210386119!

!Macmillan,! R.,! Nierobisz,! A.,! &! Welsh,! S.! (2000).! Experiencing! the!

streets:! Harassment! and! perceptions! of! safety! among! women.!

Journal! of! Research! in! Crime! and! Delinquency,! 37,! 306O322.!

doi:10.1177/0022427800037003003!

Magley,! V.! J.,! Hulin,! C.! L.,! Fitzgerald,! L.! F.,! &! Denardo,! M.! (1999).!

Outcomes!of!selfOlabeling!sexual!harassment.!Journal!of!Applied!

Psychology,!84,!390O402.!doi:!10.1037//0021O9010.84.3.390!!

McKinley,!N.,!&!Hyde,!J.!S.!(1996).!The!Objectified!Body!Consciousness!

Scale.! Development! and! validation.! Psychology! of! Women!

Quarterly,!20,!181O215.!doi:10.1111/j.1471O6402.1996.tb00467.x!
160! CHAPTER!3!
!

Moffitt,! L.! B.,! &! Szymanski,! D.! M.! (2011).! Experiencing! sexually!

objectifying! environments:! A! qualitative! study.! The! Counseling!

Psychologist,!39,!67O106.!doi:!10.1177/0011000010364551!!

Moya,!M.,!Glick,!P.,!Expósito,!F.,!De!Lemus,!S.,!&!Hart,!J.!(2007).!It's!for!

your! own! good:! Benevolent! sexism! and! women's! reactions! to!

protectively! justified! restrictions.! Personality! and! Social!

Psychology!Bulletin,!33,!421–434.!!

! doi:10.1177/0146167207304790!

MoyaOGarófano,! A.,! Megías,! J.! L.,! RodríguezOBailón,! R.! &! Moya,! M.! (in!

press).! Spanish! version! of! the! Objectified! Body! Consciousness!

Scale! (OBCS):! Results! from! Two! Samples! of! Female! University!

Students.! Revista! de! Psicología! Social! [Journal! of! Social!

Psychology].!

MoyaOGarófano,! RodríguezOBailón,! R.! A.,! Megías,! J.! L.,! &! Moya,! M.!

(2015).!Women’s!reactions!to!objectifying!behaviours!(‘piropos’):!

The! moderating! role! of! selfN! objectification.! Manuscript!

submitted!for!publication.!!

!Preisig,! G.! (1998).! Una! investigación! sobre! el! piropo! español! [An!

investigation! of! the! Spanish! piropo].! (Doctoral! dissertation,! The!

University! of! British! Columbia).! Retrieved! from:!

https://circle.ubc.ca/handle.!

Real! Academia! Española.! (2014).! Piropo! [Piropo].! In! Diccionario! de! la!

lengua!española![Dictionary!of!the!Spanish!language]!(23rd!ed.).!

Madrid,!Spain:!Author.!Retrieved!from:!!
 EFFECTS!OF!LEWD!AND!GALLANT!PIROPOS! 161!
!

! htttp://buscon.rae.es/srv/search?id=Qnd2pX8okE2x5wMBqzWG!

Sanz,! J.! (2001).! Un! instrumento! para! evaluar! la! eficacia! de! los!

procedimientos!de!inducción!de!estado!de!ánimo:!“La!Escala!de!

Valoración! del! Estado! de! Ánimo”! (EVEA)! [An! instrument! to!

assess!the!efficacy!of!mood!induction!procedures:!The!Scale!for!

Mood!Assessment!(EVEA)].!Análisis!y!Modificación!de!Conducta,!

[Analysis! and! Behaviour! Modification]! 27,! 71O110.! Retrieved!

from:!http://uhu.es/publicaciones/ojs/index.php/amc/index!

Sanz,! J.,! Gutiérrez,! S.,! y! GarcíaOVera,! M.! P.! ! (2014).! ! Propiedades!

psicométricas!de!la!Escala!!de!!Valoración!!del!!Estado!!de!!Ánimo!!

(EVEA):! Una! ! revisión! [Psychometric! properties! of! the! Scale! for!

Mood!Assessment!(EVEA):!A!revision].!Ansiedad!y!Estrés![Anxiety!

and!Stress],!20,!27O49.!

Soukkio,!M.!(1998).!El!Piropo.!Un!estudio!del!flirteo!callejero!en!la!lengua!

española! [The! piropo.! A! study! about! street! flirtation! in! the!

Spanish!language].!(Master!dissertation,!University!of!Helsinki).!!

SuárezOOrozco,!M.,!&!Dundes,!A.!(1984).!The!piropo!and!the!dual!image!

of! women! in! the! SpanishOspeaking! world.! Journal! of! Latin!

American!Lore,!10,!111O33.!

Tiggemann,! M.,! &! Boundy,! M.! (2008).! Effect! of! environment! and!

appearance!compliment!on!college!women’s!selfOobjectification,!

mood,! body! shame,! and! cognitive! performance.! Psychology! of!

Women! Quarterly,! 32,! 399–405.! doi:10.1111/j.1471O

6402.2008.00453.x!!
162! CHAPTER!3!
!

Venclovská,! N.! (2006).! Los! piropos! españoles! [The! Spanish! piropos].!

(Doctoral!dissertation,!Masarykova!Univerzita).!Retrieved!from:!!

http://is.muni.cz.th/75447/ff_b/bakalinek.pdf!

Watson!D.,!&!Clark!L.!A.!(1997).!Measurement!and!mismeasurement!of!

mood:! recurrent! and! emergent! issues.! Journal! of! Personality!

Assessment,! 68,! 267O296.! ! doi:! 10.1207/s15327752jpa6802

 APPENDIX(
Table(1.!Mean!Scores!(and!Standard!Deviations)!of!each!“Piropo”!on!the!different!items!(Women!participants,!n!=!99).!Scales!(1@7)!

Treats!the!
Treats!the! Expresses!that! Portrays!the!
woman!as! Has! Expresses!a! This!type!of!
! woman!as! the!man! woman!by!
existing!simply! sexual! positive! piropo!
! an!object,! depends!on! focusing!on!a!
for!the!man’s! connot@ image!of!the! strikes!me!as!
PIROPO! not!a! and!needs!the! single!part!of!
use!and! ations! woman! unpleasant!
person! woman!! her!body!
enjoyment!
1.! “I! better! not! find! out! that! that! ass! goes! hungry!”! 5.59! 5.74! 5.90! 3.24! 2.03! 4.74! 6.81!
[“¡Qué+no+me+entere+yo+que+ese+culo+pasa+hambre!”]+ (1.72)! 1.52)! (1.36)! (1.99)! (1.28)! (1.93)! (0.51)!
!
2.! “Girl…! I’d! like! to! make! you! a! saliva! suit.”! [“Niña…un+ ! ! ! ! ! ! !
traje+de+saliva+te+hacía+yo”]! 5.44! 6! 6.34! 3.18! 1.86! 6.28! 3.22!
(1.59)! (1.38)! (1.00)! (1.81)! (0.97)! (1.07)! (1.87)!
3.! “Honey,! you’re! a! small! monument.”! [“Menudo+ 5.42! 4.12!!!!!!!!! 3.42! 2.55!!!!!!!!!! 3.65!!!!!! 2.90!!!!!! 2.52!!!!!!!!!
monumento+colega…”]+ (1.8)! (1.63)! (1.65)! (1.39)! (1.77)! (1.54)! (1.70)!

4.! “Giiiirl,! I’m! going! to! eat! the! part! of! you! that! you! like! 5.65! 6.02! 6.85! 3.52! 1.65! 6.33! 5.21!
the! most.”! [“Niñaaa.+ te+ voy+ a+ coméeeee+ lo+ que+ más+ (1.57)! (1.26)! (0.5)! (2)! (0.99)! (1)! (1.93)!
gustito+te+déeeeeeeeeeeee”]+
!
5.! “Giiiirl,! careful! with! those! bonbons,! they! melt! in! the! 4.74! 3.34! 2.68! 2.26! 3.77! 2.45! 2.28!
sun.”! [“Niñaaa.+ cuidado+ con+ los+ bombones,+ que+ se+ (1.69)! (1.57)! (1.48)! (1.32)! (1.65)! (1.45)! (1.51)!
derriten+al+sol”]!
!
6.!“I’d!eat!you!with!your!clothes!on,!girl.”! 5.68! 6.38! 6.60! 3.40! 2.14! 5.16! 3.20!
+[“Te+comía+hasta+con+la+ropa+puesta,+niña”]+ (1.57)! (0.78)! (0.70)! (1.96)! (1.38)! (1.71)! (1.84)!
!
!

Treats!the!
Treats!the! Expresses!that! Portrays!the!
woman!as! Has! Expresses!a! This!type!of!
! woman!as! the!man! woman!by!
existing!simply! sexual! positive! piropo!
! an!object,! depends!on! focusing!on!a!
for!the!man’s! connot@ image!of!the! strikes!me!as!
PIROPO! not!a! and!needs!the! single!part!of!
use!and! ations! woman! unpleasant!
person! woman!! her!body!
enjoyment!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

7.! “Honey,! I’ll! fill! you! with! everything! but! fear.”! 5.73! 6.56! 6.79! 3.81! 1.79! 6.23! 3.92!
[“Morena…te+metía+de+to’+menos+miedo”]+ (1.42)! (0.77)! (0.68)! (1.81)! (1.03)! (0.88)! (1.99)!

8.!“Oh,!the!lady!in!red,!I’d!fuck!her!”![“Ay+la+de+rojo,+¡que+ 5.67! 6.24! 6.67! 2.82! 1.55! 5.63! 5.88!

se+lo+cojo!”]+ (1.39)! (0.97)! (0.75)! (1.84)! (0.87)! (1.39)! (1.38)!

9.!“Damn,!you!look!good!!I!bet!you!piss!cologne!”! 5.17! 4.56! 4.23! 2.56! 2.60! 5.48! 3.02!

![“¡Pero+ qué+ buena+ que+ estás!+ ¡Seguro+ que+ meas+ (1.75)! (1.58)! (1.73)! (1.49)! (1.46)! (1.70)! (1.65)!
colonia!”]+
!
10.!“I’d!eat!you!whole!and!sew!up!my!ass!to!keep!from! 5.31! 5.67! 5.10! 3.04! 1.86! 6.22! 3!
shitting!you.”![“Te+comía+entera+y+me+cosía+el+culo+pa’+no+ (1.74)! (1.52)! (1.77)! (1.88)! (1.26)! (1.1)! (1.9)!
cagarte”]!
!
11.! “Sweet! mother! of! God!! You! with! those! curves! and! 5.04! 5.11! 5.04! 3.55! 3.08! 3.57! 4.98!
me!with!no!brakes.”![“¡Madre+Mía!+Tú+con+esas+curvas+y+ (1.43)! (1.4)! (1.44)! (1.7)! (1.44)! (1.7)! (1.82)!
yo+sin+frenos”]+
!
12.! “Daaaaamn,! what! an! ass,! sweet! mother! of! 5.31! 5.47! 5.69! 3.10! 2.39! 4.57! 6.73!
God!”[“¡Aaaayy+que+culo+tienes+madre+miaa!”]+ (1.81)! (1.46)! (1.45)! (2)! (1.45)! (1.61)! (1.04)!

!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Treats!the!
Treats!the! Expresses!that! Portrays!the!
woman!as! Has! Expresses!a! This!type!of!
! woman!as! the!man! woman!by!
existing!simply! sexual! positive! piropo!
! an!object,! depends!on! focusing!on!a!
for!the!man’s! connot@ image!of!the! strikes!me!as!
PIROPO! not!a! and!needs!the! single!part!of!
use!and! ations! woman! unpleasant!
person! woman!! her!body!
enjoyment!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

13.!“If!you!were!a!bollicao![sweet!bun!filled!with!cream],! 6.09! 6.09! 6.31! 3.39! 1.91! 5.57! 4.07!

I! would! even! eat! the! wrapper.”! [“Si+ fueras+ bollicao+ te+ (1.2)! (1.14)! (1.04)! (1.88)! (0.98)! (1.61)! (2.22)!
comía+hasta+el+cromo.”]+

14.! “Your! smile! would! brighten! anyone’s! mood.”! 1.67! 1.63! 1.42! 2.92! 6.15! 1.15! 4.48!
[“Tienes+una+sonrisa+que+ilumina+a+cualquiera”]+ (1.04)! (1.03)! (0.85)! (1.59)! (1.24)! (0.5)! (2.44)!

15.! “Quien! fuera! pirata,! pero! no! por! el! oro! ni! por! la! 6.58! 6.77! 6.90! 3.73! 1.62! 6.27! 6.62!
plata,!sino!por!ese!tesoro!que!tienes!entre!las!patas.”![“I+ (0.6)! (0.47)! (0.3)! (2)! (0.95)! (1.03)! (0.99)!
wish+ I+ were+ a+ pirate+ but+ not+ for+ gold+ or+ silver—for+ the+
treasure+you+have+between+your+legs.”]+
!
16.! “Are! you! Google?! Because! you! have! everything! I’m! 4.05! 3.43! 2.52! 5.28! 4.67! 2.21! 1.54!
searching!for.”![“¿Eres+Google?+Porque+tienes+todo+lo+que+ (1.99)! (1.76)! (1.55)! (1.5)! (1.5)! (1.4)! (1.1)!
busco.”]+
!
17.! “Precious,! did! you! hurt! yourself! when! you! fell! from! 2.56! 1.81! 1.81! 2.74! 5.35! 1.72! 1.70!
heaven?”![“Preciosa,+¿te+hiciste+daño+al+caer+del+cielo?”]+ (1.58)! (1.16)! (1.28)! (1.42)! (1.58)! (1.1)! (1.1)!
!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
!

Treats!the!
Treats!the! Expresses!that! Portrays!the!
woman!as! Has! Expresses!a! This!type!of!
! woman!as! the!man! woman!by!
existing!simply! sexual! positive! piropo!
! an!object,! depends!on! focusing!on!a!
for!the!man’s! connot@ image!of!the! strikes!me!as!
PIROPO! not!a! and!needs!the! single!part!of!
use!and! ations! woman! unpleasant!
person! woman!! her!body!
enjoyment!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
18.! “Your! mom! must! be! a! pastry! chef! because! not! just! 4.81! 3.47! 2.98! 2.60! 4.40! 2.34! 2.09!
anybody! can! make! a! sweet! like! you.”! [“Tu+ madre+ tiene+ (1.6)! (1.66)! (1.63)! (1.36)! (1.72)! (1.43)! (1.33)!
que+ser+pastelera,+porque+un+bombón+como+tú+no+lo+hace+
cualquiera.”]!
!
19.! “If! you! were! a! candy,! I’d! eat! you! even! with! the! 5.84! 6.04! 5.63! 3.33! 2.49! 4.18! 2.76!
wrapper! on.”! [“Si+ fueras+ un+ bombón,+ te+ comería+ hasta+ (1.34)! (1.14)! (1.51)! (1.82)! (1.34)! (1.8)! (1.9)!
con+el+envoltorio+puesto.”]!
!
20.!“Eso!sí!es!un!culo,!y!no!lo!que!le!quita!mi!madre!a!los! 5.77! 5.39! 5.84! 3.14! 2.29! 4.96! 6.84!
pepinos”! [“Now+ that’s+ what+ I+ call+ an+ end+ [bum],+ not+ (1.4)! (1.46)! (1.72)! (1.85)! (1.4)! (1.73)! (0.5)!
what+my+mum+trims+off+the+cucumbers!”]!
!
21.!“I’d!like!to!be!ice!cream!to!wet!your!lips!and!melt!in! 3.86! 4.58! 4.82! 3.98! 3.39! 3.25! 5.07!
your! mouth.”! [“Me+ gustaría+ ser+ helado+ para+ mojar+ tus+ (1.96)! (1.77)! (1.51)! (1.76)! (1.63)! (1.67)! (1.71)!
labios+y+derretirme+en+tu+boca.”]!!

22.! “I! wish! I! were! a! tile! so! that! I! could! see! all! of! your! 5.87! 6.10! 6.49! 3.69! 1.64! 6.08! 6.56!
stuff.”![“Quien+fuera+baldosa+para+verte+toda+la+cosa.”]+ (1.4)! (1.45)! (1.25)! (2.15)! (1.1)! (1.48)! (0.97)!
!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
 Treats!the!
Treats!the! Expresses!that! Portrays!the!
woman!as! Has! Expresses!a! This!type!of!
! woman!as! the!man! woman!by!
existing!simply! sexual! positive! piropo!
! an!object,! depends!on! focusing!on!a!
for!the!man’s! connot@ image!of!the! strikes!me!as!
PIROPO! not!a! and!needs!the! single!part!of!
use!and! ations! woman! unpleasant!
person! woman!! her!body!
enjoyment!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
23.! “If! your! ass! was! a! bank,! I! would! stick! it! [penis]! in! a! 6.62! 6.72! 6.85! 3.68! 1.49! 6.47! 6.28!
fixed@term!deposit!account!”![“Si+tu+culo+fuera+un+banco+ (0.81)! (0.57)! (0.5)! (1.93)! (0.85)! (1.05)! (1.48)!
te+la+metería+a+plazo+fijo!”]!
!
24.! “I! wish! I! were! cross@eyed! so! I! could! see! you! twice.”! 3.05! 4.12! 2.91! 3.30! 3.77! 2.63! 2.58!
[“Quién+fuese+bizco+para+verte+dos+veces”]! (1.7)! (1.68)! (1.6)! (1.58)! (1.86)! (1.53)! (1.65)!
!
25.!“You!are!like!a!star,!so!beautiful!to!admire!and!so!far! 3.29! 2.47! 2.22! 4.39! 5.61! 1.69! 1.61!
away!to!touch.”![“Eres+como+una+estrella,+tan+bella+para+ (1.99)! (1.58)! (1.54)! (1.6)! (1.35)! (0.98)! (1.19)!
admirarla+y+tan+lejana+para+tocarla”]+
!
!

! !
! ! !
!
!
!
!
!

!
 !

!
!

Chapter 4:

The moderating role of self-

objectification in women’s reactions

to objectifying behaviors (‘piropos’)

 !

!
 !

! !

“Women’s!reactions!to!objectifying!behaviours!(‘piropos’):!

The!moderating!role!of!self>!objectification.!

!
!

Abstract!

‘Piropos’! are! remarks! about! physical! attributes! mainly! directed! toward!

women,! which! can! be! considered! a! clear! example! of! sexual!

objectification! within! Spanish! society.! Among! the! many! negative!

consequences! of! sexual! objectification! is! self@objectification,! where!

women! come! to! perceive! themselves! as! objects.! In! this! study,! we!

analysed! some! of! the! emotional! consequences! of! being! exposed! to! a!

lewd!piropo!together!with!the!moderating!role!of!self@objectification!in!

352! Spanish! women! with! differing! socio@demographic! characteristics.!

The! results! demonstrated! that! the! exposure! to! the! piropo! provoked!

negative!consequences!for!women!(hardly!any!happiness!or!feelings!of!

power,!yet!anger!and!feelings!of!helplessness).!However,!women!with!a!

high! level! of! trait! self@objectification! did! not! react! as! negatively! as!

women! that! show! a! lower! level! of! self@objectification.! Therefore,! the!

harmful! consequences! for! women! of! certain! types! of! piropos! are!

demonstrated!together!with!the!moderating!role! of! self@objectification!

in!their!reactions!to!piropos.!

Keywords:( women,! sexual! objectification,! self@objectification,! street!

harassment,!emotions!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 173!
!

Imagine! that! you! are! walking! along! the! street! and! you! hear! a!

man!say!to!a!woman:!“Now!that’s!what!I!call!an!end![bum],!not!what!my!

mum!trims!off!the!cucumbers!”![“Eso(es(un(culo(y(no(lo(que(le(quita(mi(

madre(a(los(pepinos”]!or!“If!your!arse!was!a!bank,!I!would!stick!it![penis]!

in!a!fixed!term!deposit!account!”![“Si(tu(culo(fuera(un(banco,(te(la(metía(

a(plazo(fijo”]!How!do!you!think!you!would!feel!in!this!situation?!Maybe!

you!would!feel!bad!(uncomfortable,!denigrated…),!especially!if!you!are!a!

woman.!These!types!of!comments!are!examples!of!what!are!known,!in!

Spain! (and! other! Spanish@speaking! countries),! as! piropos.! A! piropo! is!

defined! as! “a! short! saying! which! praises! some! quality! of! someone,!

especially! the! beauty! of! a! woman”! [“dicho! breve! con! que! se! pondera!

alguna!cualidad!de!alguien,!especialmente!la!belleza!de!la!mujer”]!(Real!

Academia! Española! [Royal! Spanish! Academy],! 2014a).! There! are! many!

types! of! piropos.! Some! are! clearly! vulgar! and! hostile,! such! as! those!

mentioned! above.! However,! others! have! a! ‘softer’! character! and! may!

even!be!considered!by!some!people!as!acceptable!and!even!‘flattering’.!!

Yet! they! are! all! comments! that! objectify! women,! as! they! focus!

fundamentally! on! a! woman’s! appearance! and! treat! women! as! objects,!

being!generally!of!a!sexual!nature.!Female!sexual!objectification!consists!

precisely! of! considering! a! woman! as! a! body,! body! parts! or! sexual!

functions! as! if! they! were! capable! of! representing! her,! obviating! her!

characteristics!as!a!person!(Bartky,!1990).!

! To!date,!we!are!not!aware!of!any!studies!that!have!addressed!

how!women!react!to! piropos! from!a!psychosocial!perspective,!and!the!

174! CHAPTER!4!
!

factors! that! influence! their! reactions.! As! will! be! explained,! piropos,!

particularly! those! similar! to! the! ones! already! mentioned,! provoke! a!

clear! rejection! in! the! majority! of! the! population,! especially! women.!

However,! as! has! been! shown! by! different! studies,! reactions! towards!

objectifying! behaviors! depend! on! social! or! cultural,! situational! and!

individual! factors! (Gregus,! Rummell,! Rankin! &! Levant,! 2014;! Tylka! &!

August@Horvarth,! 2011).! The! present! research! addresses! precisely! one!

of! those! factors:! how! women’s! self@objectification! can! moderate! their!

reactions!to!an!objectifying!behavior,!such!as!a!piropo.!!

Objectification!

! Although!the!theorisation!of!female!sexual!objectification!is!not!

a! new! phenomenon,! the! development! of! a! theoretical

!framework! and! empirical! studies! is! more! recent! (Calogero,! Tantleff@

Dunn,! &! Thompson,! 2011).! In! 1997! objectification! theory! was!

formulated! from! psychology.! It! argues! that! “the! common! thread!

running! through! all! forms! of! objectification! is! the! experience! of! being!

treated!as!a!body!(or!a!collection!of!body!parts)!valued!predominantly!

for!its!use!to!(or!consumption!by)!others”!(Fredrickson!&!Roberts,!1997,!

p.!174).!Objectification!theory!argues!that!girls!and!women!are!sexually!

objectified! more! frequently! than! men! in! different! ways,! such! as!

interpersonal!and!social!encounters!or!by!means!of!audio@visual!media!

that! reproduce! such! encounters! or! expose! women! to! films,! adverts,!

magazines,! pornography,! etc.! The! theory! has! also! indicated! that! there!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 175!
!

are! multiple! negative! psychological! consequences! that! derive! from!

being!treated!as!an!object.!

! Since! its! formulation,! objectification! theory! has! given! rise! to!

many! studies,! some! of! which! consider! objectification! as! a! relatively!

recurrent!experience!over!time,!whilst!others!have!approached!it!as!an!

isolated! event.! Thus,! within! the! first! conception,! much! research! has!

focused! on! making! women! remember! objectifying! experiences,! either!

by!writing!them!down!or!by!using!scales!that!study!the!prevalence!and!

frequency! of! these! experiences,! such! as! the! Interpersonal! Sexual!

Objectification! Scale! (ISOS;! Kozee,! Tylka,! Augustus@Horvath! &! Denchik,!

2007).!On!the!other!hand,!within!the!second!perspective,!there!is!a!line!

of!research!that!has!focused!on!creating!an!objectifying!experience!and!

analysing!the!consequences!on!women.!These!situations!can!vary!from!

those! in! which! the! objectification! is! quite! explicit! to! others! of! a! more!

implicit! or! subtle! type.! The! former! would! include,! for! example,! the!

situation! used! by! Fredrickson,! Noll,! Roberts,! Quinn! &! Twenge! (1998)!

where!women!were!asked!to!try!on!a!swimsuit!and!look!at!themselves!

in! front! of! a! mirror;! or! that! of! the! study! by! Gervais,! Vescio! &! Allen!

(2010)! in! which! women! received! objectifying! gazes! from! a! man.!

Research!in!which!the!manipulation!of!the!objectifying!situation!is!more!

subtle,! would! be! that! where! the! participants! are! primed! with! words!

associated! with! objectification! (Calogero! &! Pina,! 2011;! Roberts! &!

Gettman,! 2004),! or! studies! in! which! the! participants! anticipate! an!

interaction!with!a!man!(Calogero,!2004).!
176! CHAPTER!4!
!

! !!Some!of!the!situations!or!behaviors!that!have!been!defined!as!

sexual! objectification! include! “gazing! or! leering! at! women’s! bodies,!

making!sexual!comments!about!women,!whistling!or!honking!at!women,!

taking! unsolicited! photographs! of! women’s! bodies,! presenting!

sexualized! images! of! women! in! media! or! pornography,! sexually!

harassing! women,! and! engaging! in! sexual! violence! against! women”!

(Calogero,! 2011,! p.! 34).! However,! there! is! little! research! in! which! a!

direct! exposure! to! such! situations! is! carried! out.! One! exception! would!

be! the! recent! work! by! Wiener,! Gervais,! Allen! &! Marquez! (2013).! They!

conducted! a! laboratory! experiment,! in! the! context! of! a! simulated! job!

interview,! in! which! the! researcher’s! accomplice! gazed! at! the!

participants’!chest!on!up!to!four!occasions.!At!the!end!of!the!interview!

the! confederate! made! a! comment! related! to! the! participant’s!

appearance.!Given!the!nature!of!the!street!piropo!(made!by!strangers,!

on! the! street)! and! the! difficulty! to! experimentally! recreate! a! similar!

situation,! the! women! in! our! study! will! not! be! directly! exposed! to! a!

piropo! (objectifying! situation),! but! rather! a! scenario! methodology! will!

be!used!to!recreate!a!piropo!made!by!a!stranger!in!a!public!space.!!!

!Piropos:!Everyday!Examples!of!the!Objectification!of!Women!

A!piropo,!in!general!terms,!is!a!compliment!or!praise!given!to!a!

person,! usually! a! woman,! typical! in! Spain! yet! also! present! in! many!

countries! with! a! Mediterranean! culture! and! other! Spanish@speaking!

countries!(Fridlizius,!2009).!!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 177!
!

Although!it!varies!in!content!and!form,!and!has!evolved!over!the!

years,! according! to! the! “Ausonia”! study! (“Eres! Maravillosa”! [“You’re!

Wonderful”],! 2009),! the! piropo! continues! to! be! a! common! practice! in!

Spanish!daily!life,!as!six!out!of!ten!women!say!they!receive!them!often.!

Although! piropos! can! be! directed! at! someone! with! whom! there! is! a!

close!relationship,!we!will!focus!on!the!street!piropo,!that!is!to!say,!“the!

spontaneous! phrase! or! expression! that! a! man! directs! at! an! unknown!

woman!in!the!middle!of!the!street!or!in!another!open!and!public!space”!

(Preisig,!1998).!

We! can! find! all! kinds! of! street! piropos.! The! common!

denominator!to!them!all!is!that!they!consist!of!comments!that!objectify!

women! by! focusing! fundamentally! on! their! appearance! and! treating!

women! as! objects;! being! generally! of! a! sexual! nature.! As! stated! by!

Fridlizius! (2009),! when! the! piropo! occurs! between! strangers,! it! nearly!

always!refers!to!(either!directly!or!indirectly)!the!female!body!and!not!to!

other!female!qualities.!Even!so,!the!nature!of!piropos!varies.!Some,!like!

those! mentioned! at! the! beginning! of! this! article,! have! a! more! vulgar!

character! and! tend! to! provoke! greater! rejection! amongst! women.!

Others,! of! a! more! ‘gallant’! type! (e.g.! “what! a! monument”! ! [“vaya!

monumento”],!“be!careful,!sweeties!melt!in!the!sun”![“ten!cuidado!que!

los!bombones!se!derriten!al!sol”],!“beautiful,!did!you!hurt!yourself!when!

you!fell!from!Heaven?”![“preciosa,!¿te!hiciste!daño!al!caer!del!cielo?”]),!

seem! to! provoke! reactions! that! are! slightly! more! ambiguous! or!

ambivalent.! There! are! women! who! state! that! they! enjoy! them,! whilst!
178! CHAPTER!4!
!

others! consider! them! a! demonstration! of! sexism! or! even! of! gender!

aggression! (Fridlizius,! 2009;# Gaytan@Sánchez,) 2009;) Venclovská,) 2006).)

Recently! in! Spain! a! certain! polemic! on! piropos! arose,! as! some! women!

who!held!positions!of!public!and!political!responsibility!expressed!their!

rejection!of!any!type!of!piropo.!In!the!face!of!this!reaction!other!women!

stated! being! against! vulgar! piropos,! yet! they! defended! the! ones! they!

consider!softer!(“Eres!maravillosa”![“You’re!Wonderful”],!2009;!Jiménez,!

2015;!“¿Piropos!o!acoso?”![“Piropos!or!harassment?”],!2005).!

In! recent! years! there! has! been! talked! of! a! decline! in! the!

prevalence! of! piropos! in! Spain! (Fridlizius,! 2009;! Preisig,! 1998),! a!

consequence! of! the! socio@cultural! transformations! the! country! has!

experienced! since! the! 1960’s! (Astakhova,! 2014).! However,! their!

continued! level! of! widespread! acceptance! (at! least! for! some! people,!

and/or! for! some! types! of! piropos)! may! be! related! to! some!

characteristics!of!the!Spanish!and!Latin!cultures,!as!has!been!shown!by!

linguists!and!socio@linguists.!!

Thus,! from! a! purely! linguistic! perspective,! the! Professor! of!

Spanish! language! Esther! Forgas! (cited! in! Seco,! 2011),! points! to! some!

characteristics! that! have! contributed! to! the! piropo! taking! root! in!

Spanish!culture.!One!would!be!“the!expansive!or!extrovert!character!of!

society,! shared! with! the! Mediterranean! peoples,! that! entails! a!

generalised! use! of! the! exclamation! and! apostrophe”.! Other!

characteristics! of! Spanish! society! according! to! this! author! that! could!

contribute!to!the!use!of!piropos!would!be!the!tendency!to!exaggeration!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 179!
!

and! hyperbole,! together! with! the! use! of! metaphors.! Therefore,! the!

Spanish!piropo!appears!characterised!by!an!elaboration!that!plays!with!

language! and! goes! beyond! the! wolf! whistle! or! the! standard! qualifying!

adjective!about!physical!appearance.!!

On! the! other! hand,! Brown! and! Levinson’s! politeness! model!

(1987),! a! pragmalinguistic! theory! that! approaches! the! way! in! which!

context!influences!the!interpretation!of!meaning,!could!help!understand!

the! relative! acceptance! of! the! piropo! in! the! Hispanic! context.! This!

theory!is!based!on!Goffman’s!(1967)!notion!of!face,!which!refers!to!the!

positive! social! value! that! individuals! hope! to! obtain! in! their! social!

interaction! with! others.! Brown! and! Levinson! introduce! new! elements!

into!Goffman’s!ideas,!and!add!a!new!differential!facet!to!the!concept!of!

positive!face:!negative!face.!Thus,!positive!face!refers!to!the!desire!to!be!

accepted,!respected!or!valued!by!other!members!of!the!society!to!which!

they!belong;!and!negative!face!refers!to!the!desire!of!each!individual!to!

have! his/her! actions! unimpeded! by! others,! that! is,! not! wanting! to! be!

bothered! or! imposed! upon! by! others,! being! able! to! do! what! they!

themselves! decide,! or! that! their! personal! space! is! not! invaded.!

Therefore,! from! Brown! and! Levinson’s! model,! verbal! politeness! would!

be! considered! as! a! series! of! strategies! aimed! at! controlling! the! self@

image!of!the!speakers!(Martínez@Cabeza,!1997).!!

! According! to! studies! such! as! those! by! Haverkate! (2000),! most!

cultures! can! be! divided! depending! on! whether! the! members! that!

comprise! it! show! preference! for! the! expression! of! positive! politeness!
180! CHAPTER!4!
!

(which!he!prefers!to!call!‘solidarity!politeness’),!or,!alternatively,!if!they!

prefer! the! expression! of! negative! politeness! (which! he! refers! to! as!

‘distancing! politeness’).! Haverkate! (2000),! in! his! research! on! spoken!

Dutch! and! Spanish,! found! similar! results! to! those! found! by! Sifianou!

(1992)! with! spoken! English! and! Greek:! Spanish! and! Greek! cultures! are!

orientated! towards! solidarity! (positive)! politeness,! whereas! Dutch! and!

English!cultures!are!orientated!towards!distancing!(negative)!politeness.!!

A!compliment!is!defined!as!“praise!for!the!qualities!and!merits!of!

someone! or!something”![“una!alabanza!de!las!cualidades!y!méritos!de!

alguien!o!de!algo”]!(Real!Academia!Española![Royal!Spanish!Academy],!

2014b).!According!to!Jang!(2011),!because!a!compliment!is!an!act!that!

seeks! to! express! solidarity! and! esteem! for! the! person! that! receives! it,!

complimenting! could! be! considered! a! prototypical! strategy! of! positive!

politeness.! In! this! framework,! research! proves! that! Spaniards! (from!

Spain)!say!thank!you!when!they!receive!a!compliment,!yet!Americans!do!

not! (De! Pablos,! 2006).! Similarly,! the! average! Dutch! person! does! not!

tend!to!give!or!receive!compliments,!or!know!how!to!respond!to!them!

(Haverkate,!2003).!Similar!reactions!have!been!observed!in!English!and!

Scandinavian!cultures!(Albelda!&!Briz,!2010).!

These! linguistic@cultural! approaches! can! help! understand! the!

reactions!that!can!occur!in!response!to!piropos!in!Hispanic!cultures.!In!

Anglo@Saxon!cultures!compliments!on!appearance!are!not!so!common,!

and! it! would! be! logical! to! expect! that! something! much! more! extreme,!

such!as!street!piropos!or!comments!about!physical!appearance!made!by!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 181!
!

strangers! in! the! street,! is! clearly! seen! as! an! invasion! of! a! woman’s!

intimacy! or! personal! space,! reflecting! that! women! are! being! bothered!

or!pressurised!by!others!(essential!in!negative!or!distancing!politeness).!

However,! in! Hispanic! cultures! the! piropo! would! be! included! in! its!

entirety!in!positive!or!solidarity!politeness!because,!to!a!certain!extent,!

it! strengthens! the! desire! to! be! accepted,! respected! and! valued.!

Globalisation! and! the! progressive! expansion! in! the! Western! world! of!

generalised! ideologies! and! cultural! patterns! (most! of! them! proceeding!

from! the! Anglo@Saxon! world)! can! be! creating! a! shift! in! positive!

politeness! cultures,! like! the! Hispanic! culture,! towards! negative!

politeness.! Despite! the! change! of! direction! in! these! cultures,! their!

tradition! of! positive! politeness! may! still! be! of! great! importance.! The!

piropo,! even! in! its! most! vulgar! form,! could! be! interpreted! by! the!

receptor!as!a!form!of!compliment!by!the!other!person,!and,!as!we!have!

pointed! out,! it! tends! to! be! harder! for! the! members! of! positive!

politeness! cultures! to! reject! compliments! than! for! the! members! of!

negative!politeness!cultures.!

The!Piropo!and!Stranger!Harassment!

The! piropo! could! also! be! related! to! what! has! been! called!

‘stranger! harassment’.! Bowman! (1993,! p.! 519)! defined! stranger!

harassment! as! the! “[sexual]! harassment! of! women! in! public! places! by!

men! who! are! strangers”,! and! it! “includes! both! verbal! and! nonverbal!

behavior,! such! as! wolf@whistles,! leers,! winks,! grabs,! pinches,! catcalls,!

182! CHAPTER!4!
!

and!stranger!remarks;!the!remarks!are!frequently!sexual!in!nature!and!

comment! evaluatively! on! a! woman’s! physical! appearance! or! on! her!

presence! in! public”! (Bowman,! 1993,! p.! 523).! Stranger! harassment! is!

perpetrated! by! men! who! are! not! known! to! the! victim! (i.e.! not! a! co@

worker,! friend,! family! member! or! acquaintance),! and! occurs! in! public!

places! (Fairchild! &! Rudman,! 2008).! Although! sexual! objectification! by!

strangers!in!public!spaces!@sometimes!also!called!street!harassment@!is!

more! common! than! objectification! by! acquaintances! (Gardner,! 1995;!

Macmillan,! Nierobisz,! &! Welsh,! 2000),! there! is,! to! date,! hardly! any!

research!dedicated!to!exploring!this!theme!(Calogero,!2011,!p.!222).!

However,! although! the! piropo! can! be! considered! a! form! of!

‘stranger!harassment’,!we!consider!that!it!presents!certain!peculiarities.!

Firstly,! it! usually! makes! explicit! reference! to! a! woman’s! appearance,!

whilst! some! behaviors! related! to! stranger! harassment! (whistling,!

blowing! kisses),! simply! try! to! attract! the! woman’s! attention.! Such!

behaviors! are! more! general! and! not! aimed! specifically! at! her! actual!

appearance.! Secondly,! piropos! have! a! certain! rhetoric! elaboration! that!

distinguishes! them! from! other! types! of! comments! about! appearance!

that!are!typical!of!street!harassment!(e.g.!“Heyyy,!good!morning!lady!”!

“What! a! beauty!”).! Finally,! piropos! are! highly! accepted! in! Latin! and!

Mediterranean! cultures.! This! could! be! related! to! the! fact! that! these!

cultures!are!considered!to!belong!to!the!positive!or!solidarity!politeness!

category!(rather!than!to!the!negative!or!distancing!politeness!category).!

This!is!reflected!not!only!by!their!relatively!wide!prevalence,!but!also!by!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 183!
!

the! fact! that! whilst! stranger! harassment! is! clearly! rejected! in! some!

Western!cultures!(Belgium,!for!example,!recently!introduced!a!new!law!

that!criminalises!street!harassment)!(Cruz,!2015),!in!the!case!of!piropos!

there! is! an! ongoing! debate! (at! least! in! Spanish! society).! Some! piropos!

are!accepted!and!valued!(even!by!women!with!progressive!ideologies).!!!

Reactions!to!an!Objectifying!Behavior!(the!piropo)!According!to!

Trait!Self>objectification!!

One! of! the! most! important! implications! of! experiencing!

objectification!regularly,!is!that!women!may!develop!a!third!person!view!

of! themselves,! perceiving! themselves! as! objects! in! the! same! way! that!

others! do.! This! phenomenon! is! named! self@objectification! (Fredrickson!

&! Roberts,! 1997).! Numerous! studies! have! shown! that! self@

objectification! has! negative! consequences! for! women.! Self@

objectification!has!been!found!to!be!related!to!emotions!of!shame!and!

anxiety!(Fredrickson!&!Roberts,!1997),!eating!disorders!(Calogero,!Davis,!

&! Thompson,! 2005;! Fredrickson! &! Roberts,! 1997),! the! impairment! of!

cognitive! performance! (Fredrickson,! Roberts,! Noll,! Quinn! ! &! Twenge,!

1998;! Quinn,! Kallen,! Twenge,! &! Fredrickson,! 2006),! depression!

(Tiggemann!&!Kuring,!2004),!substance!abuse!(Carr!&!Szymanski,!2010),!

sexual!dysfunctions!(Fredrickson!&!Roberts,!1997),!or!increased!blaming!

of! rape! victims! (Loughnan,! Pina,! Vasquez! &! Puvia,! 2013),! to! cite! only!

some!of!these!negative!consequences.!

Within! objectification! theory! it! is! customary! to! differentiate!

184! CHAPTER!4!
!

between!trait!self@objectification!and!state!self@objectification!(Calogero!

&! Pina,! 2011;! Fredrickson! &! Roberts,! 1997).! Trait! self@objectification! is!

the! chronic! tendency! to! see! one’s! own! body! through! the! lens! of!

objectification,! both! in! public! and! private! contexts.! State! self@

objectification! refers! to! a! temporary! situation! in! which! people! see!

themselves!as!objects!in!response!to!environmental!stimuli.!!

Research! on! the! relationship! between! trait! self@objectification!

and!state!self@objectification!has!shown!that!state!self@objectification!is!

particularly! harmful! for! women! high! in! trait! self@objectification! (e.g.,!

Fredrickson! et! al.! 1998;! Gapinski! et! al.! 2003).! Understanding! how! trait!

self@objectification! moderates! the! negative! effects! of! objectifying!

situations!is!crucial,!because!it!can!provide!ideas!as!to!how!the!negative!

effects!of!objectification!could!be!tackled!(Gay!&!Castano,!2010).!!

Despite!trait!self@objectification!having!this!potentially!important!

moderating! role! in! objectifying! situations,! little! previous! research! has!

addressed! it.! Gay! and! Castano! (2010)! found! that! for! negative!

consequences! to! appear! a! combination! between! trait! self@

objectification! and! an! objectifying! context! was! necessary.! These!

negative!consequences!include!the!increase!of!the!cognitive!load,!and,!

as! a! result,! the! deterioration! of! women’s! performance.! Calogero,!

Herbozo!and!Thompson!(2009)!found!that!when!faced!with!appearance!

criticisms! women! high! in! trait! self@objectification! reported! more! body!

surveillance! and! body! dissatisfaction! than! those! low! in! self@

objectification.! Similarly,! with! the! already! classic! ‘Swimsuit@Sweater!

 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 185!
!

Paradigm’,!Fredrickson!and!collaborators!(1998)!found!that!the!swimsuit!

condition! elicited! higher! levels! of! body! shame,! yet! only! in! those!

participants!high!in!trait!self@objectification.!

According! to! objectification! theory,! women! high! in! trait! self@

objectification! might! not! react! as! negatively! to! objectifying! behaviors!

(Fredrickson! &! Roberts,! 1997).! In! accordance! with! this! theory,! these!

women! would! have! developed! a! tendency! to! view! themselves! with! a!

greater! emphasis! on! their! body! qualities! (to! the! detriment! of! other!

mental! frameworks! that! could! also! be! of! use! for! self@perception).! It!

would! therefore! be! interesting! to! analyse! whether! women’s! trait! self@

objectification!level!could!influence!their!reaction!when!they!are!faced!

with! piropos! (behaviors! considered! objectifying).! Thus,! even! when! the!

piropo! is! lewd,! some! women! could! interpret! receiving! it! as! proof! that!

others! see! them! from! the! perspective! of! their! physical! appearance.! It!

would!be!a!validation!of!their!self@perception!(Swami,!et!al.,!2010).!

Specifically,!it!could!be!expected!that!women!with!a!high!level!of!

trait!self@objectification!will!not!react!as!negatively!to!piropos!as!women!

that! show! a! lower! level! of! self@objectification.! If! women! high! in! self@

objectification! do! indeed! react! differently,! this! would! reveal! that! self@

objectification! could! serve! to! maintain! the! status! quo! and! legitimise!

unequal!gender!relationships!(Calogero!&!Jost,!2011).!
186! CHAPTER!4!
!

The!Present!Research!

The! present! research! has! two! fundamental! objectives:! 1)! to!

analyse! how! women! react! to! an! objectifying! behavior,! in! this! case! a!

clearly!hostile!and!vulgar!piropo;!and!2)!to!analyse!the!moderating!role!

that!trait!self@objectification!levels!could!have!on!women’s!reactions.!

Firstly,! we! expect! women! to! show! a! clear! rejection! of,! and!

negative! reactions! towards,! hostile! and! vulgar! piropos! (Hypothesis! 1).!

This!expectation!is!based!on!surveys!as!well!as!on!opinions!generated!by!

debates!that!have!recently!taken!place!in!Spanish!media,!which!clearly!

show! that! women! reject! vulgar! and! hostile! piropos! (“Eres! maravillosa”!

[“You’re!Wonderful”],!2009).!!

Secondly,! we! expect! women! high! in! self@objectification! to! not!

react! as! negatively! to! objectifying! behaviors,! such! as! a! piropo!

(Fredrickson!&!Roberts,!1997)!(Hypothesis!2).!

The! Body! Surveillance! subscale! of! the! Objectified! Body!

Consciousness! Scale! (OBCS)! (McKinley! and! Hyde,! 1996)! was! used! for!

measuring! the! self@objectification! trait.! Scores! on! this! scale! reflect! a!

primary! and! fundamentally! cognitive! manifestation! of! objectified! body!

consciousness! (another! way! of! referring! to! self@objectification)!

(Lindberg,! Hyde! &! McKinley,! 2006),! something! that! occurs! when! an!

individual! monitors! their! own! body! and! sees! it! from! an! external!

perspective.! This! reflects! in! recurrent! thoughts! about! appearance! and!

continuous!checking!to!see!if!the!body!conforms!to!cultural!norms.!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 187!
!

We! believe! the! main! effect! of! the! piropo! is! to! make! a! woman!

conscious! of! her! body,! independently! to! her! seeing! it! as! something!

flattering! or! insulting.! Some! women! may! come! to! expect! to! be!

objectified,!and!piropos!may!serve!as!reminders!of!the!fact!that!others!

are!evaluating!their!bodies!(Calogero!et!al.,!2009;!Tiggemann!&!Boundy,!

2008).! Thus,! we! consider! that! the! effects! of! the! piropo! and! the!

moderating! role! of! Self@Surveillance! (self@objectification)! will! be!

relatively! independent! from! other! characteristics! of! women! that! are!

related!to!self@objectification,!such!as!their!BMI!and!their!Self@Shame!(a!

self@objectification!component!that!is!fundamentally!affective!because!it!

considers!whether!or!not!an!individual!feels!bad!or!guilty!because!s/he!

believes!that!their!body!does!not!meet!cultural!standards)!(Lindberg!et!

al.,!2006).!As!indicated!by!Calogero!(2011,!p.!24),!self@objectification!and!

its! negative! consequences! can! occur! both! in! women! who! are! satisfied!

with!their!bodies!and!those!who!are!dissatisfied.!!

Pilot!Study!

We! sought! to! select! piropos! that,! apart! from! being! clearly!

objectifying,! were! also! unpleasant.! In! a! previous! study! first! year!

Psychology! students! (men! and! women)! at! a! University! in! the! South! of!

Spain! produced! a! list! of! piropos! that! they! had! heard! a! man! say! to! a!

woman!on!the!street.!We!selected!25!of!the!most!common!piropos,!and!

tried!to!include!as!many!differing!types!of!piropos!as!possible.!
188! CHAPTER!4!
!

Subsequently,! 136! Psychology! students! (73%! women)! assessed,!

via! an! on@line! questionnaire,! 7! aspects! of! each! of! the! 25! piropos! (see!

table!1).!The!response!format!was!from!1!(not!at!all)!to!7!(very!much).!

The! on@line! platform! Qualtrics,! which! was! used! for! completing! the!

questionnaire,! randomly! assigned! the! piropos! to! be! assessed! by! the!

participants! to! achieve! a! more! o! less! equitable! distribution.!

Approximately! half! of! the! individuals! would! assess! 12! piropos! and! the!

other!half!13.!!

The! three! piropos! that! appear! in! Table! 1! were! selected.!

According!to!the!participants,!the!three!piropos!were!assessed!as!being!

unpleasant,!highly!objectifying!and!having!a!sexual!content.!In!general,!

there! were! hardly! any! differences! between! men! and! women! in! the!

assessment!of!the!three!piropos!in!each!of!the!dimensions!(women!only!

scored!higher!than!men!in!the!dimension!“it!presents!women!simply!for!

the!enjoyment!and!use!of!men”!for!piropo!2,!and!also!considered!it!to!

be! more! unpleasant).! As! our! study! was! only! going! to! include! women,!

the!scores!presented!in!Table!1!only!represent!the!female!participants’!

responses!to!the!three!piropos.!

!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 189!
!

!
Table! 1.! Descriptive! Statistics! (means! and! SDs)! for! Piropos! used! in! the!
present!research.!
!
Scale- Piropos,-Mean-(SD)-

! 2.“Now!that’s! 3.“If!your!arse!
1.“I!would!eat!
what!I!call!an!end! was!a!bank,!I!
you!up!and!sew!
[bum],!not!what! would!stick!it!
up!my!arse!to!
my!mum!trims!off! [penis]!in!a!fixed!
not!crap!you!
the!cucumbers”!! term!deposit!
out”!(n!=!51)!
(n!=!56)! account”!(n!=!53)!
It!treats!women!as! 5.31!(1.74)! 5.77!(1.4)! 6.62!(.81)!
objects,!not!as!
people!
It!presents!women! 5.67!(1.52)! 5.39!(1.46)! 6.72!(.57)!
simply!for!the!
enjoyment!and!use!
of!men!
It!has!sexual! 5.10!(1.77)! 5.84!(1.17)! 6.85!(.5)!
connotations!
It!reflects!that!men! 3.04!(1.88)! 3.14!(1.85)! 3.68!(1.93)!
depend!on!and!
need!women!
It!reflects!a!positive! 1.86!(1.26)! 2.29!(1.4)! 1.49!(.85)!
image!of!women!
I!think!this!type!of! 6.22!(1.1)! 4.96!(1.73)! 6.47!(1.05)!
piropo!is!
unpleasant!
It!represents! 3.00!(1.9)! 6.84!(.5)! 6.28!(1.47)!
women!focusing!
only!on!one!part!of!
their!bodies!

Note.(Scale(endBpoints(are(1(=(not(at(all(and(7(=(very(much(
190! CHAPTER!4!
!

Method!

Participants!

A! total! of! 352! women,! with! a! mean! age! of! 21.00! years! (SD! =!

3.85),! participated! in! the! study.! All! had! Spanish! nationality,! with! the!

exception! of! one! Swiss! and! one! Ecuadorian.! Many! of! them! (39%)! had!

completed! secondary! studies! or! university! studies! (completed! or!

ongoing)! (61%).! 96.5%! indicated! being! heterosexual.! In! some! analyses!

the! number! of! participants! is! inferior! due! to! missing! values! in! some!

measures.!!!

Procedure!

This! is! an! experimental! study! with! a! hypothetical! scenario!

methodology! and! a! sole! independent! variable! (piropo( exposure! versus!

control).! In! the! ‘piropo’! condition! participants! were! presented! with! a!

specific!scenario!and!asked!to!imagine!that!what!was!described!actually!

happened! to! them.! Approximately! half! of! the! women! (50.8%)! were!

assigned! to! this! condition! and! the! other! half! (49.2%)! to! the! control!

condition.!The!three!piropos!selected!in!the!pilot!study!were!used:!“Now!

that’s! what! I! call! an! [end]! bum,! not! what! my! mum! trims! off! the!

cucumbers,”! “I! would! eat! you! up! and! sew! up! my! arse! to! not! crap! you!

out”![“Te!comía!entera!y!me!cosía!el!culo!pa'!no!cagarte”],!and!“If!your!

arse!was!a!bank,!I!would!put!it![penis]!in!a!fixed!term!deposit!account”.!

The! participants! were! recruited! by! first! year! Psychology! students! and!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 191!
!

answered! the! questionnaires! at! their! request.! Half! read! the!

questionnaire! that! included! one! of! the! three! piropos! and! half! (control!

condition)! only! answered! the! dependent! measures.! Of! those!

participants!assigned!to!the!piropo!condition,!30.6%!of!the!participants!

read! piropo! 1,! 28.6%,! read! piropo! 2! and! 40.8%! read! piropo! 3.!

Differences!according!to!the!type!of!piropo!were!only!found!in!relation!

to! Body! Shame! (scores! in! Body! Shame! were! higher! for! participants!

exposed! to! piropo! 1,! followed! by! those! exposed! to! piropo! 2! and! lastly!

those! exposed! to! piropo! 3).! However,! neither! in! this! nor! in! any! of! the!

other!measures!was!the!interaction!between!the!type!of!piropo!and!the!

experimental! manipulation! significant.! Therefore,! in! the! analysis! the!

three!piropos!were!considered!together.!

In! the! piropo( condition,! after! the! presentation! of! the! research,!

the!participants!read!the!following!text:!!

(“Imagine(that(you(are(in(the(following(situation:(

(( You( are( walking( along( the( street( alone.( You( are( walking( briskly(

and(thinking(to(yourself,(without(paying(too(much(attention(to(what(is(

going(on(around(you.(When(you(cross(the(road,(you(realise(that(you(are(

about(to(pass(by(a(square(where(a(group(of(young(lads(are(sitting(on(a(

bench,(and(are(looking(at(you.(You(continue(walking(and(pass(by(without(

looking(at(them(or(paying(attention(to(what(they(are(doing.(Then,(as(you(

are(passing,(one(raises(his(voice(and(says(to(you:((

“(one-of-the-three-piropos-appeared-here)”-
192! CHAPTER!4!
!

The!participants!then!answered!the!dependent!measures,!which!

appeared!in!the!order!listed!below.!!!

1)(Mood(and(emotions.(After!reading!the!scenario,!participants!in!

the! experimental! group! were! asked! to! respond! to! the! 16! items! of! the!

Escala! de! Valoración! del! Estado! de! Ánimo! (EVEA)! [Scale! for! Mood!

Assessment]! (Sanz,! 2001).! This! was! to! ascertain! the! mood! that! they!

thought! they! would! experience! if! they! found! themselves! in! a! situation!

like!the!one!described!(participants!from!the!control!group!were!asked!

to! indicate! how! they! felt! at! that! moment).! The! EVEA! assesses! four!

moods,! each! of! which! is! measured! by! four! items:! SadnessBdepression!

(melancholy,! depressed,! downcast,! and! sad);! Anxiety! (nervous,! tense,!

anxious,! and! restless);! Happiness( (happy,! optimistic,! joyful,! and!

cheerful);! and! AngerBhostility( (irritated,! angry,! annoyed,! and!

displeased).!The!response!format!is!from!0!(not(at(all)!to!10!(very(much).!

The! EVEA! measure! has! shown! a! high! internal! consistency! (with! alphas!

between! .86! and! .92! for! Sadness@depression;! between! .92! and! .94! for!

Anxiety;! between! .93! and! .95! for! Anger@hostility! and! between! .88! and!

.96! for! Happiness;! Sanz,! Gutiérrez,! &! García@Vera,! 2014).! Appropriate!

test@retest! reliability! and! discriminant! validity! have! also! been!

demonstrated! (Sanz,! 2001).! ! In! our! case! the! reliability! coefficients!

obtained! were:! .87! for! Sadness@depression;! .77! for! Anxiety;! .94! for!

Anger@hostility!and!.91!for!Happiness).!

2)( Feelings( of( Power( and( Discomfort/Helplessness.! We!

subsequently! included! 12! items,! prepared! by! us! and! used! in! previous!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 193!
!

studies,! to! measure! the! Feelings! of! Power! (α! =! .81)! and!

Discomfort/Helplessness! (α! =! .86)! experienced! by! women! when! faced!

with!the!situation!described!above!in!the!piropo(condition.!The!response!

format!was!identical!to!that!of!the!EVEA.!Examples!of!the!6!items!that!

comprise! the! Power! dimension! are:! “I! would! feel! powerful”! and! “I!

would! feel! in! control! of! the! situation”.! Examples! of! the! 6! items! that!

comprise! the! Discomfort/Helplessness! dimension! are:! “I! would! feel!

weak”! and! “I! would! feel! humiliated”.! As! with! the! EVEA! scale,!

participants! in! the! control! group! answered! these! same! power! and!

discomfort/helplessness! items,! however,! they! were! asked! to! answer!

according!to!how!they!felt!at!that!moment.!!!

3)( SelfBObjectification.! The! Spanish! version! of! the! Body(

Surveillance(Subscale(of(the(Objectified(Body(Consciousness(Scale((OBCS)(

(McKinley! &! Hyde,! 1996;! Spanish! version! by! Moya@Garófano,! Megías,!

Rodríguez@Bailón!&!Moya,!2015)!was!used.!The!surveillance!subscale!is!

based! on! the! idea! that! as! women! are! an! object! of! continuous! sexual!

attention,! this! translates! into! a! constant! monitoring! of! their! bodies! to!

ensure! that! they! conform! to! dominant! beauty! cannons.! Participants!

respond! by! showing! their! degree! of! agreement! or! disagreement! with!

each!of!the!eight!statements!presented!by!the!subscale,!in!a!Likert!type!

answer! format! with! 7! points! from! 1! (strongly( disagree)! to! 7! (totally(

agree)!(4!being!neither(agree(nor(disagree);!in!each!item!the!alternative!

response! NA! (if! they! consider! that! the! item! is! not! applicable)! also!

appears.! A! high! score! indicates! that! the! individual! self@surveys! his/her!

194! CHAPTER!4!
!

appearance!and!thinks!often!about!how!his/her!body!looks;!a!low!score!

indicates!that!the!individual!rarely!self@surveys!his/her!appearance!and!

instead!tends!to!focus!on!how!s/he!feels!on!a!physical!level.!An!example!

of!an!item!is:!“I!often!worry!about!if!the!clothes!I’m!wearing!look!good!

on! me”.! Body! Surveillance! subscale! scores! have! been! found! to! be!

internally! consistent,! stable! over! a! 2@week! period! and! demonstrated!

evidence! of! construct! validity! (McKinley! &! Hyde,! 1996).! In! the! present!

study,!the!alpha!coefficient!for!this!measure!was!.71.!

( 4)(Body(Shame.!The!Spanish!version!of!the!Body(Shame(Subscale(

of( the( Objectified( Body( Consciousness( Scale( (OBCS)( (McKinley! &! Hyde,!

1996;! Spanish! version! by! Moya@Garófano! et! al.,! 2015)! was! used.! The!

Body!Shame!subscale!aims!to!assess!the!internalisation!of!cultural!body!

standards,!as!it!is!understood!that!shame!arises!from!the!impossibility!of!

attaining! this! imposed! ideal! of! beauty.! It! is! comprised! of! 8! items! with!

the! same! response! format! as! the! previous! scale.! People! that! score!

highly!on!this!scale!feel!that!they!are!less!valid!if!they!do!not!manage!to!

achieve!the!cultural!expectations!about!how!the!body!must!be.!On!the!

contrary,! people! that! have! low! scores! do! not! see! their! personal! value!

reduced!if!they!do!not!conform!to!said!body!expectations.!An!example!

of! an! item! is:! “I! feel! bad! when! I! don’t! look! as! good! as! I! could”.! Body!

Shame! subscale! scores! have! been! found! to! be! internally! consistent,!

stable!over!a!2@week!period,!and!related!to!measures!of!negative!body!

image! (McKinley! &! Hyde,! 1996).! In! this! study,! the! alpha! coefficient! of!

this!subscale!was!.79.!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 195!
!

5)! Body( Mass( Index! (BMI).! Self@reported! weight! and! height!

information! was! collected! to! calculate! relative! weight! to! height! ratios!

using!BMI:!weight/height2!(kg/m2;!Garrow!&!Webster,!1985).!

Results!

In! Table! 2! mean! scores! are! presented! for! all! the! measures! of!

emotions,! feelings! of! power! and! helplessness,! and! self@objectification.!

Scores! are! presented! as! totals! as! well! as! being! separated! according! to!

the!experimental!condition!(piropo!versus!control).!!!

Table! 2.! Summary! of! Means! and! t@Values! for! the! different! variables!
studied!(n!=!352).!
!
Total!
! ‘Piropo’! Control! tBValue!
sample!
M(( M(( M((
! (
(SD)( (SD)( (SD)(
Anger>Hostility! 3.14! 4.25! 2.02! 7.66***!
(EVEA)! (2.86)! (2.87)! (2.38)!
Happiness!(EVEA)! 4.95! 3.69! 6.21! @9.91***!
(2.63)! (2.49)! (2.12)!
Sadness> 1.80! .998! 2.61! @7.44***!
depression!(EVEA)! (2.13)! (1.51)! (2.34)!
Anxiety!(EVEA)! 3.78! 4.45! 3.11! 5.58***!
(2.28)! (2.08)! (2.28)!
Sense!of!power 4.18! 3.20! 5.17! @8.52***!
! ! (2.31)! (2.18)! (2.00)!
Sense!of! 2.1! 2.55! 1.64! 4.58***!
helplessnes! ! (1.87)! (1.92)! (1.71)!
Body!Surveillance! 3.06! 3.06! 3.06! @.008!
!(OBCS)! ! (1.05)! (.99)! (1.12)!
Body!Shame!! 2.56! 2.56! 2.56! @.008!
(OBCS)!! (1.29)! (1.21)! (1.37)!
196! CHAPTER!4!
!

BMI! ! ! 21.71! 21.36! 22.05! @2.06*!

(2.85)! (2.6)! (3.05)!

Note:(*p(<(.05;(**p(<(.01;(***p(<(.001.( (
( (
As! we! expected! (Hypothesis! 1),! women! exposed! to! the! piropo!

showed! considerably! more! negative! emotions! (less! happiness,! more!

anger!and!anxiety)!and!feelings!related!to!the!lack!of!power,!than!those!

who!were!not!exposed!to!a!piropo.!An!exception!to!this!general!pattern!

of! results! occurred! in! the! sadness@depression! subscale! (EVEA),! where!

women!exposed!to!the!piropo!scored!lower.!!

Curiously,! women! in! the! piropo! condition! scored! lower! in! BMI!

than!those!in!the!control!condition.!

! With!regard!to!the!Body!Surveillance!and!Body!Shame!measures,!

in! neither! were! there! differences! according! to! the! experimental!

manipulation.!However,!women!scored!higher!in!Body!Surveillance!than!

in!Body!Shame!(as!is!usual!when!these!measures!are!used).!The!scores!

were! somewhat! lower! than! those! obtained! by! McKinley! and! Hyde!

(1996)!in!the!original!measure.!!

In!Table!3!the!bivariate!correlations!between!the!main!measures!

of! the! study! are! presented.! Scores! in! the! Surveillance! and! Shame!

subscales! of!the!OBCS!correlated!significantly,!although!the!magnitude!

of!the!correlation!was!somewhat!lower!than!that!found!in!other!studies.!

The! different! emotional! reactions! also! appeared! to! be! related! to! each!

other! in! the! direction! that! would! be! expected.! It! is! worth! noting! the!

positive! evaluation! of! the! feelings! associated! with! power;! given! their!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 197!
!

positive! correlation! with! other! positive! emotions! and! negative!

correlation! with! negative! emotions;! except! in! the! case! of! the! positive!

correlation! between! power! and! sadness@depression.! However,!

emotions!and!self@objectification!measures!did!not!appear!to!be!related!

to!each!other!(or!only!very!weakly!in!some!cases).!BMI!did!not!correlate!

significantly! with! Self@objectification! (surveillance),! which! is! consistent!

with!objectification!theory!(Calogero,!2004).!In!order!to!test!Hypothesis!

2,!several!hierarchical!linear!regressions!were!conducted!using!each!of!

the!different!measures!(Happiness,!Anger@hostility,!Sadness@depression,!

Anxiety,!feelings!of!Power!and!Helplessness)!as!the!criterion!variable!for!

each!analysis.!All!continuous!variables!were!centered!prior!to!calculating!

the! interaction! term! (Cohen,! Cohen,! West,! &! Aiken,! 2003).! In! the! first!

step! of! the! regression,! scores! in! Body! Shame! were! included! (with! the!

aim! of! controlling! the! effects! of! the! more! affective! aspects! of! self@

objectification)2.!The!experimental!manipulation!(coded!0!=!control,!1!=!

piropo),! and! scores! in! the! Body! Surveillance! scale! were! entered! in! the!

second!step.!The!third!step!was!to!test!for!two@way!interaction.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
2
!The! same! analyses! were! conducted! using! Body! Shame! and! BMI! in! the! first!
steps.! Results! were! exactly! the! same! that! those! without! including! BMI.!
Because! including! BMI! implied! a! reduction! in! the! number! of! participants,! we!
decide!to!present!the!results!without!including!this!variable.!
 198! CHAPTER!4!
!

!
!
Table!3.!!Zero@order!correlations!among!the!main!variables!of!the!study.!
!

! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8! 9!

1.!Happiness! @.54**! .07! @,20**! .74**! @.30**! .08! @.01! .16!

2.!Anger@Hostility! @! .18**! .56**! @.34**! .62**! @.07! .02! @.10!
3.!Sadness@Depr! ! @! .28**! .14**! .39**! .01! .14*! .09!
4.!Anxiety! ! ! @! @.12*! .65**! .06! .022! @.035!
5.!Power! ! ! ! @! @.20**! @.06! @.03! .06!
6.!Helplessness! ! ! ! ! @! .02! .10! @.08!
7.!Surveillance! ! ! ! ! ! @! .23**! @.00!
(OBCS)!

8.!Shame!(OBCS)! ! ! ! ! ! ! @! .26**!
9.!BMI! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! @!

Note:( OBCS,( Objectified( Body( Consciousness( Scale;( BMI,( Body( Mass(

Index.(*p(<(.05;(**p(<(.01.(
(
Happiness!

With! regard! to! the! emotions! included! in! this! subscale! (e.g.,!

“happy”,! “optimistic”,! etc.)! the! analysis,! as! expected,! yielded! a! main!

effect!of!the!experimental!manipulation:!women!reported!less!positive!

emotions!in!the!piropo!condition!than!in!the!control!condition,!b([email protected],!

t(325)[email protected],!p!=!.000,!95%!CI!=![−3.04,[email protected]].!Central!to!Hypothesis!

2,! we! found! a! significant! interaction! between! participants’! Body@

surveillance!and!the!experimental!manipulation,!b=!.81,!t(325)!=!3.36,!p!

=!.001,!95%!CI!=![.34,!1.28].!Simple!slopes!tests!showed!that!exposure!to!

the! piropo! had! a! higher! significant! negative! impact! on! happiness! in!

women!low!in!Body!Surveillance,!b!=!@3!.39,[email protected],(p(<.00,!CI!=![@4.1,!@
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 199!
!

2.7],!than!in!women!high!in!Body!Surveillance,!b!=!−1.65,!t(=!−4.63,!p<!

.00,!CI!=![−2.35,[email protected]]!(see!Figure!1).!!

Figure( 1.( Moderation! model! with! experimental! manipulation! (piropo!

versus! control)! as! the! independent! variable,! Body! Surveillance! as! the!
moderator,!and!Happiness!as!the!dependent!variable.(
(
Anger>hostility!

In!these!emotions!(e.g.,!“irritated”,!“angry”,!etc.),!the!opposite!pattern!

to! happiness! was! found:! the! analysis! also! yielded! a! main! effect! of! the!

experimental! manipulation! –! women! reported! more! anger@hostility! in!

the! piropo! condition! than! in! the! control! condition,! b( =! 2.27,! t(325)! =!

7.84,! p! =! .000,! 95%! CI! =! [1.7,! 2.84].! Confirming! our! Hypothesis! 2,! we!

found! a! significant! interaction! between! participants’! Body@surveillance!

and! the! experimental! manipulation,! b( =! @.76,! t(325)! =! @2.73,! p! =! .007,!

95%! CI! =! [−1.32,! @.2].! Simple! slopes! tests! showed! that! the! exposure! to!

the!piropo!significantly!increased!anger@hostility!more!at!1!SD!below!the!
200! CHAPTER!4!
!

Body!Surveillance!mean,!b!=!3!.08,!t!=!7.49,!p<!.00,!CI!=![2.3,!3.9],!than!at!

1!SD!above!the!Body!Surveillance!mean,!b!=!1.43,!t(=!3.49,!p<!.00,!CI!=!

[.62,!2.24]!(see!Figure!2).!

Figure( 2.! Moderation! model! with! experimental! manipulation! (piropo!

versus! control)! as! the! independent! variable,! Body! Surveillance! as! the!
moderator,!and!Anger@hostility!as!the!dependent!variable.!
!
Sadness>depression!

Included!in!this!subscale!are!emotional!states!such!as!depressed,!

sad,! etc.! We! found! only! a! main! effect:! Coinciding! with! the! findings! of!

the! t@test! analysis,! the! participants! experienced! more! sadness! in! the!

control!condition!than!in!the!piropo!condition,[email protected],!t(325)[email protected],!

p!=!.000,!95%!CI!=![@2.02,[email protected]].!!

Anxiety!

In!the!case!of!these!emotions!(nervous,!tense,!etc…),!only!a!main!

effect! of! our! experimental! manipulation! was! found:! women!

 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 201!
!

experienced! more! anxiety! when! they! received! the! piropo! than! when!

they!did!not!receive!it,!b(=!1.35,!t(325)!=!5.57,!p!=!.000,!95%!CI!=![.87,!

1.33].!

Feelings!related!to!power!

For!these!feelings!(e.g.,!powerful,!encouraged,!etc.),!there!was!a!

significant! main! effect! of! the! experimental! manipulation.! Women!

reported! less! feelings! of! power! in! the! piropo! condition! than! in! the!

control!condition,!b([email protected],!t(325)[email protected],!p!=!.000,!95%!CI!=![−2.44,!@

1.54].! However,! this! effect! was! qualified! by! a! condition! x! participant’s!

self@surveillance!interaction,!b(=!.76,!t(325)!=!3.5,!p!=!.001,!95%!CI!=![.33,!

1.19].!Simple!slopes!tests!showed!that!exposure!to!the!piropo!condition!

had!a!higher!significant!negative!impact!on!power!related!feelings!at!1!

SD!below!the!Body!Surveillance!mean,[email protected],[email protected],!p!<!.00,!CI!=![@

3.42,[email protected]],!than!at!1!SD!above!the!Body!Surveillance!mean,[email protected],!t!

[email protected],!p<!.00,!CI!=![@1.8,[email protected]]!(see!Figure!3).!

Feelings!related!to!helplessness!

!For!these!feelings!(e.g.,!inferior,!down,!etc.)!only!a!main!effect!of!

the! experimental! manipulation! was! found,! b( =! .96,! t(325)! =! 4.79,! p! =!

.000,!95%!CI!=![.56,!1.35];!women!exposed!to!the!piropo!showed!higher!

helplessness!feelings.!
202! CHAPTER!4!
!

!!!!!

!
Figure( 3.! Moderation! model! with! experimental! manipulation! (piropo!
versus! control)! as! the! independent! variable,! Body! Surveillance! as! the!
moderator,!and!Power!related!feelings!as!the!dependent!variable.!
!
Discussion!

Although! there! are! great! differences! between! countries! and!

cultures,! in! their! daily! lives! women! are! still! exposed! to! objectifying!

remarks! by! strangers.! In! the! Latin! cultures! these! remarks! are! usually!

called! piropos! and! vary! in! different! dimensions,! such! as! their! level! of!

hostility,!obscenity,!sexual!focalisation,!and!on!how!they!are!perceived!

by! the! women! themselves.! Not! all! women! react! in! the! same! way!

towards! a! piropo.! Thus,! although! an! apparently! flattering! piropo,! like!

“What!a!beauty!”!may!be!perceived!in!a!positive!way!by!some!women,!

it!can!also!be!clearly!rejected!by!others.!!!

In!the!present!study!we!have!focused!on!common!street!piropos!

in!a!Spanish!context!that!are!clearly!hostile!and!perceived!as!unpleasant!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 203!
!

(both! by! men! and! women);! as! demonstrated! by! the! pilot! study.! A!

primary! objective! of! the! present! study! was! to! confirm! that! when!

women! are! exposed! to! this! type! of! piropo,! it! does! indeed! produce!

negative! effects! on! their! mood! and! perceptions! of! control! and! power.!

The!results!of!our!study!show!that!this!is!the!case:!women!exposed!to!

the! piropo! experienced! more! clearly! more! emotions! related! to! anger@

hostility,!anxiety!and!feelings!of!helplessness;!they!also!experienced!less!

happiness! and! feelings! related! to! power.! These! results,! together! with!

the!pilot!study,!clearly!confirm!that!at!least!the!vulgar!piropos!we!have!

studied,!are!negatively!experienced!by!women.!

When! some! people,! including! women! who! hold! prestigious!

positions,!within!the!Spanish!context,!defend!the!piropo,!they!normally!

refer! to! the! gallant! and! nice! piropo.! However,! it! is! not! wholly! unusual!

for! even! the! most! vulgar! piropo! to! be! defended,! because! it! is! claimed!

that!deep!down!it!reflects!that!women!are!deserving!of!the!attentions!

of! men.! A! well@known! Spanish! contemporary! writer,! Carmen! Posadas!

(n.d.),! said:! “…in( our( country( the( compliment( is( dead( and( buried:( a(

beauty(with(a(glorious(body(can(pass(in(front(of(a(group(of(men(and(not(

one(of(those(machos(will(move(a(muscle.(The(Latin(Americans(are(much(

more(prone(to(saying(nice(things…(In(Spain(on(the(contrary,(in(the(past(a(

country(witty(at(flirtatious(comments,(nice(words(aren’t(heard(any(more,(

not(even(a(swear(word(like(the(one(builders(used(to(throw(at(us(from(the(

scaffolding.(It’s(over,(we(women(seem(not(to(inspire(any(comment(at(all,(

be(it(good(or(bad.”!!
204! CHAPTER!4!
!

Although! it! seems! clear! that! there! is! certain! variability! in! the!

reactions!of!the!women!who!participated!in!our!research!towards!vulgar!

piropos,!and!it!is!possible!that!some!women!even!like!them,!our!results!

clearly! show! that! hostile! piropos! are! rejected! by! women.! Even! the!

feelings! of! power! that! women! can! experience,! something! that! some!

research!has!found!on!occasion!to!increase!when!women!are!objectified!

(Breines,! Crocker! &! Garcia,! 2008;! Calogero! et! al.,! 2009),! decrease! in!

women! exposed! to! this! type! of! piropos.! We! did! not! find! even! those!

supposedly!‘positive’!consequences!of!the!piropo!(consequences!whose!

positive!character,!on!the!other!hand,!is!not!without!controversy).!!

An!unexpected!result!was!that!the!women!exposed!to!the!piropo!

experienced! less! sadness@depression.! One! possible! explanation! for! this!

unexpected! result! might! be! that! the! increase! in! anger! may! have!

reduced! sadness/depression.! Research! on! emotion! has! shown! that!

although!both!anger!(high!in!those!exposed!to!the!piropo)!and!sadness!

are! negative! emotions,! they! are! associated! with! opposing! tendencies;!

anger! being! an! approach@related! emotion! and! sadness! an! avoidance@

related!emotion!(e.g.!Carver!&!Harmon@Jones,!2009).!!

A! second! objective! of! our! study! was! to! analyse! what! role!

women’s!self@objectification!levels!could!play!in!their!reactions!towards!

hostile! piropos.!The!results!show!a!moderating!effect!of!women’s!trait!

self@objectification,!measured!with!the!Self@Surveillance!subscale!of!the!

OBCS,! at! least! in! the! three! dependent! measures! that! were! used.!

Therefore,!although!exposure!to!the!piropo!produced!more!anger,!less!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 205!
!

happiness!and!less!feelings!of!power,!this!pattern!of!results!was!weaker!

for! women! who! scored! high! in! Self@Surveillance! (in! comparison! with!

those! who! scored! low).! Women! who! tend! to! self@objectify! themselves!

are! women! that! place! great! importance! on! their! physical! appearance!

and!who!tend!to!perceive!themselves!in!terms!related!to!it!(Fredrickson!

&!Roberts,!1997).!Thus,!it!could!be!possible!that,!despite!the!obscenity!

of! the! piropo,! women! high! in! self@objectification! do! not! perceive! it! as!

negatively!as!women!who!self@objectify!themselves!less,!because!deep!

down!the!piropo!is!a!comment!about!an!aspect!that!is!highly!important!

for! their! self@concept.! To! paraphrase! what! was! said! by! the! writer! C.!

Posadas,!it!may!be!that!women!high!in!self@objectification!do!not!reject!

the!piropo!as!much!because,!although!unpleasant,!it!at!least!means!that!

someone!is!paying!attention!to!their!appearance.!

The! main! effects! of! the! exposure! to! the! piropo! and! the!

moderation! exerted! on! these! effects! by! female! participants’! self@

objectification! levels! were! independent! to! their! scores! in! Body! Shame!

and!their!BMI.!This!result!corroborates!the!proposition!of!objectification!

theory! that! the! effects! of! worrying! about! appearance! (self@

objectification)! are! independent! of! body! size! (Calogero,! 2004)! and!

women! being! satisfied! or! dissatisfied! with! their! bodies! (Calogero,!

Tantleff@Dunn,!&!Thompson,!2011).!

Our! results! add! a! new! negative! consequence! of! self@

objectification! to! the! numerous! negative! consequences! that! have!

already! been! made! clear! by! previous! research! (about! self@esteem,!

206! CHAPTER!4!
!

anxiety,!health!issues…):!women’s!self@objectification!can!contribute!to!

their! continuing! objectification,! by! weakening! their! negative! reactions!

towards! objectifying! behaviors! (piropos)! and! consequently! making! it!

harder! for! them! to! show! a! clear! opposition! to! them.! A! similar!

circumstance! occurs! with! the! benevolent! component! of! ambivalent!

sexism! (Glick! &! Fiske,! 1996):! different! research! has! revealed! that!

women! with! high! adherence! to! this! type! of! beliefs! show! less! rejection!

towards! sexist! or! even! violent! behaviors! that! come! embellished! with!

benevolent!sexist!justifications!(e.g.!Dardenne,!Dumont,!&!Bollier,!2007;!

Durán,!Moya!&!Megías,!2014;!Moya,!Glick,!Expósito,!de!Lemus,!&!Hart,!

2007).!

Despite! the! interesting! results! that! can! be! obtained! from! the!

present!research,!it!has!certain!limitations!that!must!be!acknowledged.!

Firstly,! our! study! has! focused! on! a! type! of! piropo! that! is! clearly! vulgar!

and! unpleasant.! Future! research! must! consider! if! this! rejection! also!

occurs! (with! the! same! or! less! intensity)! in! the! case! of! ‘more! polite’!

piropos.! Secondly,! the! use! of! a! procedure! based! on! a! scenario! can!

remove! certain! realism! from! the! study! of! a! form! of! behavior! (and!

reactions! to! it)! that! occurs! in! the! street! and! in! everyday! situations.! It!

would! be! interesting! to! see! if! experimental! studies! whereby! women!

were!really!exposed!to!piropos!would!produce!clearer!effects!than!those!

found! here.! Finally,! although! the! dependent! measures! used! (basically!

emotional!reactions)!are!measures!whose!relationship!with!many!other!

variables! is! highly! documented,! they! remain! but! only! some! of! the!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 207!
!

possible! reactions! of! women! towards! objectifying! situations.! In! the!

same! way! that! other! authors! have! studied! clearer! strategies! of! coping!

or! rejection! in! the! face! of! objectification,! it! would! be! interesting! to!

include!measures!of!this!nature!in!future!studies.!

Nevertheless,! despite! these! limitations! we! consider! that! the!

present!research!constitutes!an!important!beginning!in!the!study!of!an!

objectifying! behavior! (the! piropo)! that! is! highly! widespread! in! certain!

countries! (Latin! and! Mediterranean).! This! study! has! enabled! us! to!

analyse,!for!the!first!time,!how!certain!types!of!piropos!(vulgar!ones)!are!

perceived.! It! has! additionally! shown! that! the! negative! perception! of!

these! piropos! is! dependent! on! women’s! levels! of! self@objectification.!

This! fact! alerts! us! to! a! further! consequence! of! women’s! self@

objectification,!and!reinforces!the!need!to!combat!it.!!
208! CHAPTER!4!
!

References!

Albelda,!M.,!&!Briz@Gómez,!M.!A.!(2010).!Aspectos!pragmáticos.!Cortesía!

y! atenuantes! verbales! en! las! dos! orillas! a! través! de! muestras!

orales! [Pragmatic! aspects.! Politeness! and! verbal! mitigation! on!

both! sides! using! oral! samples].! In! M.! Aleza@Izquierdo! &! J.! M.!

Enguita@Utrilla.!(Eds.),!La(lengua(española(en(América:(normas(y(

usos( actuales( [The! Spanish! language! in! America:! Norms! and!

current!usage].!(pp.!237@260).!Valencia:!Universitat!de!València.!

Retrieved!from:!http://www.uv.es/aleza!

Astakhova,!E.!(2014).!Piropo!como!fenómeno!lingüístico!y!sociocultural!

en! el! espacio! español! [Piropo! as! a! linguistic! and! sociocultural!

phenomenon! in! Spanish! space].! In:! A.! Orlov! (Ed.),! Cuaderno(

sIberoamericanos:(Vol.(1![Iberoamerican!Notebooks:!Vol.!1]!(pp.!

99@108)! Moscow,! Russia:! MGIMO.! Proceedings! book! retrieved!

from:!

http://www.imi.mgimo.ru/images/pdf/Iberoamerikanskie_tetra

di/CI13.pdf#page=99!

Bartky,!S.!(1990).!Femininity(and(domination.!New!York,!NY:!Routledge.!!

Bowman,!C.!G.!(1993).!Street!harassment!and!the!informal!ghettoization!

of!women.!Harvard(Law(Review,(106,!517@580.!

Breines,!J.!G.,!Crocker,!J.,!&!Garcia,!J.!A.!(2008).!Self@objectification!and!

well@being! in! women’s! daily! lives.! Personality( and( Social(

 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 209!
!

Psychology( Bulletin,( 34,! 583@598.!!!

doi:10.1177/0146167207313727!

Brown,! P.! &! Levinson,! S.! C.! (1987).! Politeness.( Some( Universals( in(

Language(Usage.(

(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press.!!

Calogero,! R.! M.! (2004).! A! test! of! Objectification! Theory:! The! effects! of!

the! male! gaze! on! appearance! concerns! in! college! women.!

Psychology( of( Women( Quarterly,( 28,! 16@21.! doi:10.1111/j.1471@

6402.2004.00118.x!

Calogero,!R.!M.!(2011).!Operationalizing!self@objectification:!Assessment!

and!related!methodological!issues.!In!R.!M.!Calogero,!S.!Tantleff@

Dunn,! &! J.! K.! Thompson! (Eds.),! SelfBObjectification( in( women:(

Causes,( consequences,( and( counteractions! (pp.! 23@49).!

Washington! DC:! American! Psychological! Association.!

doi:10.1037/12304@002!!

Calogero,!R.M.,!Davis,!W.!N.,!&!Thompson,!J.!K.!(2005).!The!role!of!self@

objectification!in!the!experience!of!women!with!eating!disorders.!

Sex(Roles,(52,[email protected]:!10.1007/s11199@005@1192@9!

Calogero,! R.M.,! Herbozo,! S.,! &! Thompson,! K.! (2009).! Complimentary!

weightism:! The! potential! costs! of! appearance@related!

commentary! for! women’s! self@objectification.! Psychology( of(

Women( Quarterly,( 33,( 120–! 132.! doi:10.1111/j.1471@

6402.2008.01479.x!

!
210! CHAPTER!4!
!

!Calogero,! R.! M.,! &! Jost,! J.! (2011).! Self@subjugation! among! women:!

Exposure! to! sexist! ideology,! self@objectification,! and! the!

protective! function! of! the! need! to! avoid! closure.! Journal( of(

Personality(and(Social(Psychology,(2,(211–228.!

!doi:10.1037/a0021864!

Calogero,!R.M.,!&!Pina,!A.!(2011).!Body!guilt:!Preliminary!evidence!for!a!

further! subjective! experience! of! self@objectification.! Sex( Roles,(

35,(428@440.!doi:10.1037/a0021864!

Calogero,! R.! M.,! Tantleff@Dunn,! S.,! &! Thompson,! J.! K.! (2011).! SelfB

Objectification( in( women:( Causes,( consequences,( and(

counteractions.! Washington! DC:! American! Psychological!

Association.!doi:10.1037/12304@002!

Carr,! E.! R.,! &! Szymanski,! D.! M.! (2010).! Sexual! objectification! and!

substance! abuse! in! young! adult! women.! The( Counseling(

Psychologist,(20,!1@28.!

!doi:10.1177/0011000010378449!

Carver,! C.S.! &! Harmon@Jones,! E.! (2009).! Anger! is! an! approach@related!

affect:! Evidence! and! implications.! Psychological( Bulletin,( 135,!

183@204.!doi:10.1037/a0013965!

Cohen,!J.,!Cohen,!P.,!West,!S.!G.,!&!Aiken,!L.!S.!(2003).!Applied(multiple(

(regression/correlation( analysis( for( the( behavioral( sciences,! 3rd!

ed.!Hillsdale:!Erlbaum.!

Cruz,!S.!(2015,!July!23).!Un!año!sin!piropos!en!Bélgica![One!year!without!

piropos!in!Belgium].!Info(Libre([Free(Info].!Retrieved!from:!!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 211!
!

http://infolibre.es/noticias/ctxt/2015/07/23/un_ano_sin_piropo

s_belgica_35809_1601.html!

Dardenne,! B.,! Dumont,! M.,! &! Bollier,! T.! (2007).! Insidious! dangers! of!

benevolent! sexism:! Consequences! for! women’s! performance.!

Journal( of( Personality( and( Social( Psychology,( 93,! 764@779.!

doi:10.1037/[email protected]!

De!Pablos,!C.!(2006).!La!enseñanza!de!aspectos!sociopragmáticos!en!el!

aula!de!ELE.![Teaching!sociopragmatic!aspects!in!the!Spanish!as!a!

Foreign!Language!class]!In!Álvarez,!A.!et!al.!(Eds.),!Actas(del(XVI(

Congreso( Internacional( de( ASELE( [Proceedings! of! the! XVI! ASELE!

International! Conference]( (515@519).! Oviedo:! Universidad! de!

Oviedo.!Proocedings!book!retrieved!from:!

http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/16/

16_0513.pdf!

Durán,!M.,!Moya,!M.,!&!Megías,!J.!L.!(2014).!Benevolent!sexist!ideology!

attribute!to!an!abusive!partner!decreases!women’s!active!coping!

responses! to! acts! of! sexual! violence.! Journal( of( Interpersonal(

Violence,!29,!380@401.!!

doi:10.1177/0886260513507134!

“Eres! maravillosa”,! el! piropo! mejor! recibido! y! el! que! más! gusta! a! las!

españolas![“You’re!wonderful”,!the!best!received!and!most!liked!

piropo! among! Spanish! women].! (2009,! January! 29).! 20( minutos!

[20!minutes].!Retrieved!from:!!

http://www.20minutos.es/noticia/348350/0/piropos/estudio/es
212! CHAPTER!4!
!

pana/#xtor=AD@15&xts=467263!

Fairchild,! K.,! &! Rudman,! L.! (2008).! Everyday! stranger! harassment! and!

women’s! objectification.! Social( Justice( Research,( 21,! 338–357.!

doi:10.1007/s11211@008@0073@0!

Fredrickson,! B.,! &! Roberts,! T.! (1997).! Objectification! Theory:! Toward!

understanding! women´s! lived! experiences! and! mental! health!

risks.! Psychology( of( Women( Quarterly,( 21,! 173@206.!

doi:10.1111/[email protected]!!

Fredrickson,!B.,!Roberts,!T.,!Noll,!S.,!Quinn,!D.,!&!Twenge,!J.!M.!(1998).!

That! swimsuit! becomes! you:! Sex! differences! in! self@

objectification,!restrained!eating,!and!math!performance.!Journal(

of(Personality(and(Social(Psychology,(1,!269@284.!!

doi:10.1037/[email protected]!!

Fridlizius,! N.! (2009).! Me( gustaría( ser( baldosa…Un( estudio( cualitativo(

sobre( el( uso( actual( de( los( piropos( callejeros( en( España( [I! would!

like!to!be!a!paving!stone…!A!qualitative!study!about!the!current!

use!of!street!piropos!in!Spain]!(Doctoral!dissertation,!Göteborgs!

Universitet).!Retrieved!from:!!

https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/21649?mode=full!

Gapinski,! K.! D.,! Brownell,! K.! D.,! &! LaFrance,! M.! (2003).! Body!

objectification! and! “Fat! talk”:! Effects! on! emotion,! motivation,!

and! cognitive! performance.! Sex( Roles,( 48,! 377@388.!

doi:10.1023/A:1023516209973!

Gardner,! C.! B.! (1995).! Passing( by:( Gender( and( public( harassment.!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 213!
!

Berkeley,!CA:!University!of!California!Press.!

Garrow,! J.! S.,! &! Webster,! J.! (1985).! Quetelet’s! index! (W/H2)! as! a!

measure!of!fatness.!International(Journal(of(Obesity,(9,!147@153.!

Gay,! R.! K.,! &! Castano,! E.! (2010).! My! body! or! my! mind:! The! impact! of!

state! and! trait! objectification! on! women’s! cognitive! resources.!

European( Journal( of( Social( Psychology,( 40,( 695–

703.doi:10.1002/ejsp.731!!

Gaytan@Sánchez,! P.! (2009).! Del( piropo( al( desencanto.( Un( estudio(

sociológico! [From! the! piropo! to! the! disillusionment:! A!

sociological! study].! México:! Universidad! Autónoma!

Metropolitana!Unidad!Azcapotzalco.!

Gervais,!S.!J.,!Vescio,!T.!K.,!&!Allen,!J.!(2011).!When!what!you!see!is!what!

you! get:! The! consequences! of! the! objectifying! gaze! for! women!

and! men.! Psychology( of( Women( Quarterly,( 35,( 5–17.!

doi:10.1177/0361684310386121!!

Glick,! P.,! &! Fiske,! S.! T.! (1996).! The! ambivalent! sexism! inventory:!

differentiating! hostile! and! benevolent! sexism.! Journal( of(

Personality( and( Social( Psychology,( 10,! 491–512.!

doi:10.1037/[email protected]!

Goffman,! E.! (1967).! Interaction( ritual:( Essays( on( faceBtoBface( behavior.(

New!York:!Pantheon!Books.!!

Gregus,! S.! J.,! Rummell,! C.! M.,! Rankin,! T.! J.,! &! Levant,! R.! F.! Women´s!

experiences! of! sexual! attention:! A! cross@sectional! study! of! U.S.!

University! students.! International( Journal( of( Sexual( Health,! 26,!

214! CHAPTER!4!
!

239–257.!doi:!10.1080/19317611.2014.885922!

Haverkate,! H.! (2000).! Estrategias! de! cortesía.! Análisis! intercultural!

[Politeness! strategies.! Cross@cultural! analysis)].! Forma( y( Función(

[Form!and!Function],(13,!17@30.!Retrieved!from:!

http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/07/

07_0043.pdf!

Haverkate,! H.! (2003).! El! análisis! de! la! cortesía! comunicativa:!

categorización! pragmalingüística! de! la! cultura! española! [The!

analysis! of! comunicational! courtesy:! Pragmalinguistic!

categorization! of! the! Spanish! culture].! In! Bravo,! D.! (Ed.),! Actas(

del( Primer( Coloquio( del( programa( EDICE:( “La( perspectiva( no(

etnocentrista( de( la( cortesía:( Identidad( sociocultural( de( las(

comunidades( hispanohablantes”( [Proceedings! from! the! First!

Colloquium!of!EDICE!program:!“The!not!ethnocentric!perspective!

of!courtesy:!Sociocultural!identity!of!the!Spanish@speaking!

!communities”]! (pp.! 60@70).! Estocolmo:! Universidad! de!

Estocolmo.! Proceedings! book! retrieved! from:!

http://edice.org/blog/download/el@analisis@de@la@cortesia@

comunicativa@categorizacion@pragmalinguistica@de@la@cultura@

espanola@2/(

Jang,!J.!S.!(2011).!Cortesía!sociocultural!en!las!sociedades!medellinense!

y! japonesa:! Una! introducción! [Sociocultural! politeness! in!

Medellin!and!Japanese!societies:!An!introduction].! Íkala,(revista(

de(lenguaje(y(cultura![Íkala,!journal!of!language!and!culture],(16,!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 215!
!

119@157.!Retrieved!from:!!

http://www.academia.edu/825280/Cortes%C3%ADa_sociocultur

al_en_las_sociedades_medellinense_y_japonesa_una_introducci

ón!

Jiménez,! S.! (2015,! July! 4).! Así! se! vive! un! día! sufriendo! piropos! [The!

experience! of! suffering! piropos! during! a! whole! day].! El( Mundo(

[The! World].! Retrieved! from:!

http://www.elmundo.es/espana/2015/07/04/5596e707268e3eb

a2b8b459a.html!

Kozee,!H.!B.,!Tylka,!T.!L.,!Augustus@Horvath,!C.!L.,!&!Denchik,!A.!(2007).!

Development! and! psychometric! evaluation! of! the! interpersonal!

sexual!objectification!scale.!Psychology(of(Women(Quarterly,(31,!

176–189.!doi:!10.1111/[email protected]!

Lindberg,! S.! M.,! Hyde,! J.! S.,! &! McKinley,! N.! M.! (2006).! A! measure! of!

objectified!body!consciousness!for!preadolescent!and!adolescent!

youth.! Psychology( of( Women( Quarterly,( 30,( 65@76.!

doi:0.1111/[email protected]!!

Loughnan,! S.,! Pina,! A.,! Vasquez,! E.! A.,! &! Puvia,! E.! (2013).! Sexual!

objectification! increases! rape! victim! blame! and! decreases!

perceived! suffering.! Psychology( of( Women( Quarterly,! 37,! 455@

461.!doi:10.1177/0361684313485718!

Macmillan,! R.,! Nierobisz,! A.,! &! Welsh,! S.! (2000).! Experiencing! the!

streets:! Harassment! and! perceptions! of! safety! among! women.!

Journal( of( Research( in( Crime( and( Delinquency,( 37,! 306@322.!

216! CHAPTER!4!
!

doi:10.1177/0022427800037003003!

Martínez@Cabeza,! M.! (1997).! La! cortesía! verbal:! Perspectiva!

pragmalingüística! [Verbal! politeness:! Pragmalinguistic!

perspective].! In:! A.! de! Molina! &! J.! D.! Luque! (Eds.),! Estudios( de(

lingüística( general.( Vol( II( [General! linguistic! studies.! Vol! II]! (pp.!

231@244).!Granada:!Método!ediciones.!!

McKinley,! N.,!&!Hyde,!J.!S.!(1996).!The!Objectified!Body!Consciousness!

Scale.! Development! and! validation.! Psychology( of( Women(

Quarterly,(20,!181@215.!doi:10.1111/[email protected]!

Moya,!M.,!Glick,!P.,!Expósito,!F.,!De!Lemus,!S.,!&!Hart,!J.!(2007).!It's!for!

your! own! good:! Benevolent! sexism! and! women's! reactions! to!

protectively! justified! restrictions.! Personality( and( Social(

Psychology(Bulletin,(33,!421–434.!

!doi:10.1177/0146167207304790!

Moya@Garófano,! A.,! Megías,! J.! L.,! Rodríguez@Bailón,! R.! &! Moya,! M.! (in!

press).! Spanish! version! of! the! Objectified! Body! Consciousness!

Scale!(OBCS).(Revista(de(Psicología(Social.!

¿Piropos!o!acoso?![Piropos!or!harassment?].!(2005,!May!4).!20(minutos!

[20! minutes].! Retrieved! from:!

http://www.20minutos.es/carta/21012/0/piropos/acoso/!

Posadas,! C.! (n.d.).! Un! piropo,! por! favor! [A! piropo,! please].! [Web! log!

post].! Retrieved! from:! http://www.carmenposadas.net/noticias@

home.php?offset=125!

Preisig,! G.! (1998).! Una( investigación( sobre( el( piropo( español( [An!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 217!
!

investigation! of! the! Spanish! piropo].! (Doctoral! dissertation,! The!

University! of! British! Columbia).! Retrieved! from!

https://circle.ubc.ca/handle.!

Quinn,!D.!M.,!Kallen,!R.!W.,!Twenge,!J.!M.,!&!Fredrickson,!B.!L.!(2006).!

The! disruptive! effect! of! self@objectification! on! performance.!

Psychology(of(Women(Quarterly,(30,!59–64.!doi:10.1111/j.1471@

6402.2006.00262.x!

Real! Academia! Española.! (2014a).! Piropo! [Piropo].! In( Diccionario( de( la(

lengua(española([Dictionary!of!the!Spanish!language]!(23rd!ed.).!

Madrid,! Spain:! Author.! Retrieved! from:!

htttp://buscon.rae.es/srv/search?id=Qnd2pX8okE2x5wMBqzWG!

Real!Academia!Española.!(2014b).!Elogio![compliment].!In!Diccionario(de(

la( lengua( española! [Dictionary! of! the! Spanish! language]! (23rd!

ed.).! Madrid,! Spain:! Author.! Retrieved! from:!

http://lema.rae.es/drae/?val=elogio!

Roberts,!T.,!&!Gettman,!J.!Y.!(2004).!Mere!exposure:!Gender!differences!

in! the! negative! effects! of! priming! a! state! of! self@objectification.!

Sex(Roles,(51,!17@27.(doi:10.1023/b:sers.0000032306.20462.22!

Sanz,! J.! (2001).! Un! instrumento! para! evaluar! la! eficacia! de! los!

procedimientos!de!inducción!de!estado!de!ánimo:!“La!Escala!de!

Valoración! del! Estado! de! Ánimo”! (EVEA)! [An! instrument! to!

assess!the!efficacy!of!mood!induction!procedures:!The!Scale!for!

Mood!Assessment!(EVEA)].!Análisis(y(Modificación(de(Conducta,!
218! CHAPTER!4!
!

[Analysis! and! Behaviour! Modification]( 27,! 71@110.! Retrieved!

from:!http://uhu.es/publicaciones/ojs/index.php/amc/index!

Sanz,! J.,! Gutiérrez,! S.,! y! García@Vera,! M.! P.! ! (2014).! ! Propiedades!

psicométricas!de!la!Escala!!de!!Valoración!!del!!Estado!!de!!Ánimo!!

(EVEA):! Una! ! revisión! [Psychometric! properties! of! the! Scale! for!

Mood!Assessment!(EVEA):!A!revision].!Ansiedad(y(Estrés([Anxiety!

and!Stress],(20,!27@49.!

Seco,! R.! (2011,! March! 21).! Lento! adiós! al! piropo! [Long! goodbye! to! the!

piropo].!El(País([TheWorld].!Retrieved!from:!!

http://elpais.com/m/diario/2011/03/21/sociedad/1300662001_

850215.html!

Sifianou,! M.! (1992).! Politeness( phenomena( in( England( and( Greece.( A(

crossBcultural(perspective.(Oxford:!Clarendon!Press.!!

Swami,!V.,!Coles,!R.,!Wyrozumska,!K.,!Wilson,!E.,!Salem,!N.,!&!Furnham,!

A.!(2010).!Oppressive!beliefs!at!play:!Associations!among!beauty!

ideals! and! practices! and! individual! differences! in! sexism,!

objectification! of! others,! and! media! exposure.! Psychology( of(

Women(Quarterly,(34,!365–379.!doi:10.1111/j.1471@!

6402.2010.01582.x!

Tiggemann,! M.,! &! Boundy,! M.! (2008).! Effect! of! environment! and!

appearance!compliment!on!college!women’s!self@objectification,!

mood,! body! shame,! and! cognitive! performance.! Psychology( of(

Women( Quarterly,( 32,( 399–405.! doi:10.1111/j.1471@

6402.2008.00453.x!!
 THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!SELF>OBJECTIFICATION! 219!
!

Tiggemann,!M.,!&!Kuring,!J.!K.!(2004).!The!role!of!body!objectification!in!

disordered!eating!and!depressed!mood.!British(Journal(of(Clinical(

Psychology,!43,!299–311.!doi:10.1348/0144665031752925!!

Tylka,!T.!L.,!&!Augustus@Horvath,!C.!L.!(2011).!Fighting!self@objectification!

in! prevention! and! intervention! contexts.! In! R.! M.! Calogero,! S.!

Tantleff@Dunn,! &! J.! K.! Thompson! (Eds.),! SelfBobjectification( in(

women:( Causes,( consequences,( and( counteractions( (pp.! 187@

214).!Washington,!DC:!American!Psychological!Association.!

Venclovská,! N.! (2006).! Los( piropos( españoles( [The! Spanish! piropos].!

(Doctoral!dissertation,!Masarykova!Univerzita).!Retrieved!from:!!

http://is.muni.cz.th/75447/ff_b/bakalinek.pdf!

Wiener,! R.! L.,! Gervais,! S.! J.,! Allen,! J.,! &! Marquez,! A.! (2013).! Eye! of! the!

beholder:! Effects! of! perspective! and! sexual! objectification! on!

harassment! judgments.! Psychology,( Public( Policy,( and( Law,( 19,!

206@221.!doi:10.1037/a0028497!

!
 !

!
 !

Chapter 5:

How women’s reactions to piropos

affect the way they are perceived by

others
 !

!
! ! ! ! !

“Sweet!Things!Never!Made!Anyone!Bitter”?!Not!Always:!The!

Negative!Consequences!of!Becoming!Happy!after!an!

Objectifying!Behavior!(“Piropos”)!

!
224! CHAPTER!4!
!

Abstract!

!
This! study! is! about! how! women! are! perceived! based! on! their!

reaction!to!a!gallant!piropo.!Piropos!are!appearance@related!comments!

in!the!street!that!are!very!common!in!Spain.!In!Study!1!(n!=!118),!men!

and! women! evaluated! the! competence,! warmth,! capacity! for!

leadership,! and! superficiality/depth! of! a! woman! who! reacted! to! a!

gallant! piropo! (““Giiiirl,! careful! with! those! bonbons,! they! melt! in! the!

sun”)! very! positively,! negatively,! or! indifferently.! The! results! showed!

that! women! who! reacted! positively! (with! joy)! were! viewed! as! less!

competent! and! more! superficial! than! the! women! who! reacted!

negatively! or! indifferently.! In! Study! 2,! using! different! measurements,!

172! men! and! women! assessed! a! superficial! person! and! a! person! with!

depth.! The! results! showed! that! the! person! with! depth! was! clearly!

preferred.! Together,! the! results! of! both! studies! show! the! unexplored!

consequences! of! objectifying! behaviors! toward! women! that! appear! to!

be!positive!but!that!can!clearly!be!detrimental.!

Keywords:!women,!social!perception,!competency,!superficiality,!depth!!

!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 225!
! ! ! !

A!piropo!is!“a!short!saying!that!praises!some!quality!of!someone,!

especially! the! beauty! of! a! woman”! (Real! Academia! Española! @! RAE!

[Royal! Spanish! Academy],! 2014a),! and! piropos! can! be! different! in!

nature;! some! piropos! are! undoubtedly! labeled! as! rude! and! lewd,! but!

others! are! considered! nice! and! even! flattering! by! others.! Piropos! are!

typical! in! Spain,! but! they! are! also! present! in! many! countries! with! a!

Mediterranean! culture! as! well! as! other! Spanish@speaking! countries!

(Fridlizius,! 2009).! Piropos! generate! very! different! reactions! among! the!

Spanish!population!(Agudo,!2015).!Some!people!call!for!the!elimination!

of!piropos!in!the!street,!affirming!that!they!are!“an!invasion!of!women’s!

privacy”!(“La!Presidenta,”!2015);!others!defend!them!(Sust,!2015);!and!

others! take! a! position! somewhere! in! the! middle,! considering! that!

certain!obscenities!that!are!yelled!at!women!in!the!street!should!not!be!

tolerated! but! that,! when! the! piropos! are! pleasant! and! enjoyable!

comments,! they! do! not! have! to! be! considered! negative! or! be! banned!

(Ferreras,!2015).!!Referring!to!this!type!of!piropo,!it!is!common!to!hear!

the!expression!“Sweets!never!made!anyone!bitter,”!which!means!that,!

no!matter!how!small!it!may!be,!everything!that!produces!pleasure,!joy,!

or!happiness!in!us!is!welcome.!

This! study! focuses! on! piropos! that! are! considered! gallant! or!

flattering! because! these! are! the! type! about! which! there! is! less!

agreement!and!more!controversy.!These!piropos!also!have!parallels!with!

benevolent! sexism! (Glick! &! Fiske,! 2001)! because! they! simultaneously!

portray! a! supposedly! positive! vision! of! women! and! a! biased! vision—

226! CHAPTER!5!
!

limiting! women! to! traditional! gender! roles,! in! the! case! of! benevolent!

sexism,! and! objectifying! them,! in! the! case! of! the! piropo! (Moya@

Garófano,!Megías,!Rodríguez@Bailón,!&!Moya,!2015).!

As!we!have!suggested,!there!is!a!diversity!of!opinions!regarding!

gallant! piropos! in! Spanish! media! and! social! networks,! ranging! from!

rejection! to! acceptance.! Despite! this! debate,! the! limited! previous!

research!that!exists!on!the!issue!has!found!that,!although!women!reject!

lewd!piropos(much!more!than!gallant!piropos!and!they!feel!worse!when!

they!receive!them,!women!who!are!exposed!to!a!gallant!piropo(do!not!

feel! better! than! those! who! do! not! receive! a! piropo( (Moya@Garófano,!

Megías! et! al.,! 2015).! Gallant! piropos( do! not! seem! to! have! the! positive!

effects! that! some! claim! they! do,! and,! furthermore,! it! is! possible! that!

they! may! have! other! negative! effects! that! have! not! been! studied.! The!

basic! goal! of! our! inquiry! is! precisely! to! analyze! some! of! these! other!

effects,! focusing! on! how! women! are! perceived! based! on! their! feelings!

when!they!receive!a!gallant!piropo.!Furthermore,!we!seek!to!go!beyond!

the! simple! positive! or! negative! evaluation! of! women! based! on! their!

reactions! to! piropos.! As! the! vast! literature! on! stereotypes! and!

prejudices!has!shown!(Cuddy,!Fiske,!&!Glick,!2007;!Glick!&!Fiske,!2001),!

prejudiced!and!damaging!attitudes!can!hide!behind!a!“positive”!view!of!

women,! becoming! even! more! damaging! because! they! are! difficult! to!

identify! as! prejudiced.! That! is,! it! is! not! simply! a! matter! of! analyzing!

whether! women! are! evaluated! positively! or! negatively! based! on! their!

reaction;!instead,!the!issue!is!to!study!how!they!are!perceived!in!other!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 227!
!

areas.! If! a! woman! were! positively! assessed! because! she! is! happy! to!

receive!a!piropo(that!objectifies!her,!then!we!should!be!careful!because!

a! positive! evaluation! has! also! been! shown! to! have! negative!

consequences,! such! as! reinforcing! women’s! subordination! to! men,! in!

the! same! way! as! benevolent! sexist! views! of! women! that! are! positive!

(Glick!et!al.,!2000).!Thus,!it!becomes!necessary!to!analyze!the!concrete!

extent!and!content!on!which!perceptions!of!women!are!produced!when!

they!react!to!a!piropo.!

Objectification!

Previous! studies! have! shown! that! piropos( are! a! type! of! sexual!

objectification! (Moya@Garófano,! Megías! et! al.,! 2015).! Sexual!

objectification! occurs! when! a! person! is! treated! as! a! mere! body! that!

exists! for! the! sexual! use! and! pleasure! of! others! (Bartky,! 1990;!

Nussbaum,!1999).!Objectification!theory!(Fredrickson!&!Roberts,!1997)!

argues! that! girls! and! women! are! sexually! objectified! more! frequently!

than! men! in! different! ways! and! that! there! are! multiple! negative!

psychological!consequences!that!derive!from!being!treated!as!an!object!

(Calogero,! Tantleff@Dunn,! &! Thompson,! 2011).! Since! its! formulation,!

objectification!theory!has!led!to!many!studies,!some!of!which!consider!

objectification! as! a! relatively! recurrent! experience! over! time! whereas!

others! have! approached! it! as! an! isolated! event.! Within! this! second!

perspective,!there!is!a!line!of!research!that!has!focused!on!creating!an!

objectifying! experience! and! analyzing! the! consequences! for! women.!

228! CHAPTER!5!
!

Some! of! the! situations! or! behaviors! that! have! been! defined! as! sexual!

objectification! include! “gazing! or! leering! at! women’s! bodies,! making!

sexual!comments!about!women,!whistling!or!honking!at!women,!taking!

unsolicited! photographs! of! women’s! bodies,! presenting! sexualized!

images!of!women!in!media!or!pornography,!sexually!harassing!women,!

and!engaging!in!sexual!violence!against!women”!(Calogero,!2011,!p.!34).!!

Although!piropos!can!also!come!from!a!known!individual!or!from!

someone!with!whom!a!relationship!is!maintained,!this!article!addresses!

comments!that!come!from!strangers,!a!phenomenon!known!as!“street!

harassment”! or! “stranger! harassment”! ! (Fairchild! &! Rudman,! 2008).!

Stranger! harassment! has! been! defined! as! the! “[sexual]! harassment! of!

women! in! public! places! by! men! who! are! strangers,”! and! it! “includes!

both!verbal!and!nonverbal!behavior,!such!as!wolf@whistles,!leers,!winks,!

grabs,! pinches,! catcalls,! and! stranger! remarks;! the! remarks! are!

frequently! sexual! in! nature! and! comment! evaluatively! on! a! woman’s!

physical! appearance! or! on! her! presence! in! public”! (Bowman,! 1993,! p.!

523).!Within!this!area!of!study,!there!is!barely!any!research!on!the!direct!

exposure! to! objectifying! situations! (see! Calogero,! 2011,! p.! 222;! for! an!

exception,!see!Wiener,!Gervais,!Allen,!&!Marquez,!2013).!!

Piropos!

A!piropo!is!a!short!saying!that!praises!some!quality!of!someone,!

especially! the! beauty! of! a! woman.! Although! the! piropo! could! be!

considered! a! form! of! “stranger! harassment,”! we! consider! that! it!

 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 229!
!

presents!certain!peculiarities.!First,!it!typically!makes!explicit!reference!

to!a!woman’s!appearance,!whereas!some!behaviors!related!to!stranger!

harassment! (whistling,! blowing! kisses)! simply! attempt! to! attract! the!

woman’s!attention.!Such!behaviors!are!more!general!and!are!not!aimed!

specifically! at! her! actual! appearance.! Second,! piropos! have! a! certain!

rhetorical! elaboration! that! distinguishes! them! from! other! types! of!

comments!about!appearance!that!are!typical!of!street!harassment!(e.g.,!

“Heyyy,! good! morning,! lady!,”! “What! a! beauty!”).! Finally,! piropos! are!

highly! accepted! in! Latin! and! Mediterranean! cultures.! This! acceptance!

could!be!related!to!the!fact!that!these!cultures!are!considered!to!use!a!

positive!or!solidarity@based!mode!of!politeness!rather!than!a!negative!or!

distancing@based! mode! of! politeness! (Haverkate,! 2000).! This! fact! is!

reflected! not! only! in! their! relatively! wide! prevalence! in! Latin! and!

Mediterranean! cultures! but! also! in! the! fact! that,! although! stranger!

harassment!is!clearly!rejected!in!some!other!Western!cultures!(Belgium,!

for! example,! recently! introduced! a! new! law! that! criminalizes! street!

harassment)! (Cruz,! 2015),! in! the! case! of! piropos,! there! is! an! ongoing!

debate!in!Spanish!society.!

To!date,!the!few!existing!studies!on!piropos(have!focused!on!how!

they!are!perceived!and!on!the!possible!consequences!that!they!have!for!

women!who!receive!them.!Moya@Garófano,!Megías!et!al.!(2015)!collect!

many! common! Spanish! piropos! and! analyze! the! degree! to! which! they!

were! accepted! and! if! they! were! perceived! as! an! objectifying! behavior.!

The!participants!in!their!study!consider!most!piropos(to!be!objectifying!
230! CHAPTER!5!
!

because!they!treat!women!as!an!object,!not!a!person;!they!view!women!

simply!as!being!for!the!pleasure!and!use!of!men;!and!they!only!focus!on!

a! part! of! the! woman’s! body! as! being! representative! of! her.! However,!

they!find!some!variation!in!the!perceptions!of!the!25!piropos(that!were!

studied.! Piropos( are! also! negatively! evaluated,! although! there! is! some!

variation.! In! a! second! study,! Moya@Garófano,! Megías! et! al.! (2015)!

analyze! the! specific! reactions! of! women! toward! two! prototypical!

piropos,! a! lewd! piropo! (“I! better! not! find! out! that! that! ass! goes!

hungry!”)! and! “gallant”! piropo! (““Giiiirl,! careful! with! those! bonbons,!

they!melt!in!the!sun”).!The!results!confirm!the!adverse!nature!and!the!

negative! consequences! of! the! lewd! piropo.! In! the! case! of! the! gallant!

piropo,(the!consequences!are!not!as!negative!as!with!the!group!that!was!

exposed!to!the!hostile!piropo,(but!none!of!the!positive!effects!that!some!

people!claim!appear!(i.e.,!positive!emotions,!empowerment).!!

The! perceptions! of! women! based! on! their! reactions! to!

objectifying!situations!

If! the! studies! about! how! women! react! when! facing! objectifying!

situations! are! scarce,! then! those! that! analyze! how! they! are! perceived!

based! on! these! reactions! are! practically! nonexistent.! However,! there!

are! two! areas! that! allow! us! to! make! certain! inferences! about! how!

women! would! be! perceived! depending! on! their! reactions! to! piropos.(

The!first!area!includes!studies!that!address!confronting!sexism,!whereas!

the!second!area!is!framed!within!objectification!theory!and!research.!!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 231!
!

! Although! some! studies! (Gervais,! Hillard,! &! Vescio,! 2010)! have!

found!that!women!(but!not!men)!who!show!inconformity!to!the!sexist!

behavior!to!which!they!are!victims!observe!increased!levels!of!their!own!

sense!of!competency,!self@esteem,!and!empowerment,!these!apparently!

positive! consequences! do! not! seem! to! have! the! same! correlation! with!

the! impression! that! they! have! on! others.! Oftentimes,! women! who!

confront! sexism! are! perceived! as! problematic! people! who! react!

disproportionately! or! are! whiny,! hyper@sensitive,! cold! at! the!

interpersonal! level,! or! fearful! of! the! repercussions! (i.e.,! Becker,!

Zawadzki,! &! Shields,! 2014;! Czopp! &! Monteith,! 2003;! Dodd,! Giuliano,!

Boutell,! &! Moran,! 2001;! Feagin! &! Sikes,! 1994;! Kaiser! &! Miller,! 2001).!

Confronters!are!also!often!considered!impolite!and!aggressive!(Swim!&!

Hyers! 1999).! The! evaluation! of! women! based! on! their! reactions! when!

faced! with! sexism! seems! to! be! closely! linked! to! traditional! (sexist)!

conceptions!of!gender!relations.!For!example,!Gervais!and!Hillard!(2014)!

manipulate! the! message! used! to! confront! sexism! (direct,! i.e.,! openly!

labeling!the!act!as!sexist,!vs.!indirect,!i.e.,!tentatively!labeling!the!act!as!

problematic!but!not!explicitly!sexist),!the!source!(male!leader!vs.!female!

leader),!and!the!context!(public!vs.!private).!Their!findings!show!that!the!

participants! evaluated! the! male! leader! more! positively! when! she!

confronted! sexism! in! an! indirect! and! public! manner! and! the! female!

leader! more! positively! when! she! confronted! sexism! in! an! indirect! but!

private!manner.!Closely!related!to!our!study,!Becker!and!Barreto!(2014)!

analyze!how!a!woman!was!perceived!by!other!people,!men!and!women,!
232! CHAPTER!5!
!

based!on!confronting!her!sexist!perpetrator!in!an!aggressive!manner!or!

a!non@aggressive!manner!or!if!she!decided!not!to!respond!to!the!sexist!

incident.! Their! results! show! that! the! choice! that! was! evaluated! most!

favorably!by!participants!was!the!non@aggressive!confrontation!and!that!

they!supported!this!approach!more!than!the!aggressive!response!or!the!

non@response.! In! this! manner,! according! to! this! literature,! if! women!

were!to!follow!traditional!gender!prescriptions,!then!the!most!expected!

responses!to!piropos(would!be!passive!or!accepting!(the!same!responses!

that!would!be!expected!when!faced!with!sexist!comments).!

! The! theory! and! research! on! objectification! and! self@

objectification! would! also! support! the! finding! that! women! would! be!

better!evaluated!(although!simultaneously!perceived!as!in!line!with!their!

traditional! gender! roles)! when! they! felt! good! about! receiving! a! gallant!

piropo.!Objectification!theory!(Fredrickson!&!Roberts,!1997)!argues!that!

girls! and! women! are! sexually! objectified! more! frequently! than! men! in!

different!ways,!such!as!interpersonal!and!social!encounters!or!by!means!

of!audio@visual!media!that!reproduce!such!encounters!or!expose!women!

to!films,!advertisements,!magazines,!pornography,!etc.!Among!the!main!

psychological! consequences! that! result! from! sexual! objectification! is!

self@objectification! (for! a! review,! see! Calogero,! Tantleff@Dunn,! &!

Thompson,! 2011).! Faced! with! the! continued! exposure! to! the!

objectifying!gaze!of!others,!women!end!up!adopting!the!perspective!of!

the! external! observers,! considering! themselves! to! be! a! body! to! be!

looked! at! and! evaluated.! In! this! manner,! piropos! (especially! gallant!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 233!
!

piropos)!can!be!considered!an!objectifying!behavior!toward!women!that!

is! very! common! in! our! culture,! and! it! would! be! expected! that,! by!

accepting! cultural! norms,! they! would! be! well! received! by! women!

themselves.! In! turn,! this! reaction! would! lead! to! a! better! social!

evaluation!of!women.!!

The!study!

! With!the!goal!of!analyzing!how!women!are!perceived!based!on!

their!reactions!to!gallant!piropos,(we!presented!men!and!women!with!a!

scenario! in! which! the! woman! reacted! in! three! different! ways! to! a!

piropo:! positively! (with! joy),! negatively! (with! anger),! and! indifferently.!

The!following!piropo(was!used:!“Giiiirl,!careful!with!those!bonbons,!they!

melt!in!the!sun!”.!A!previous!study!found!that!this!piropo(was!perceived!

[email protected].,!it!represents!women!as!an!object,!not!

a! person,! M( =! 4.74! on! a! scale! of! 1! (not! at! all)! to! 7! (a! lot)! and! slightly!

unpleasant! (M( =! 2.45! on! a! scale! of! 1! (not! unpleasant)! to! 7! (very!

unpleasant).!

! The! dependent! measurements! that! were! used! addressed! the!

impression! that! women! generated! in! terms! of! competence,! warmth,!

capacity!for!leadership,!and!superficiality/depth.!

In! terms! of! the! competence/warmth! category,! research! has!

clearly! shown! that! the! mental! image! that! people! have! of! others’!

personality! has! at! least! two! characteristics! that! are! relatively!

independent! of! each! other:! competence! and! warmth! (Abele! &!

234! CHAPTER!5!
!

Wojciszke,! 2007;! Fiske,! Cuddy,! &! Glick,! 2007).! We! hypothesized!

(Hypothesis! 1a)! that! women! who! feel! good! when! receiving! a! gallant!

piropo( would! be! perceived! as! less! competent! than! women! who! feel!

bad.! Such! a! hypothesis! is! based! on! previous! research,! although! the!

evidence! is! somewhat! indirect.! Previous! studies! have! shown! that!

women!who!evaluate!themselves!based!on!their!appearance!(i.e.,!they!

self@objectify)! perceive! themselves! as! being! less! competent! (Gapinski,!

Brownell,! &! LaFrance,! 2003)! and! perform! tasks! in! a! less! competent!

manner!(e.g.,!Fredrickson,!Roberts,!Noll,!Quinn,!&!Twenge,!1998;!Quinn,!

Kallen,! Twenge,! &! Fredrickson,! 2006).! Furthemore,! many! studies! on!

physical! attractiveness! and! the! impression! that! women! produce! in!

terms!of!their!competence!have!shown!that,!when!being!considered!for!

high@status! positions,! being! physically! attractive! decreased! the!

perception!of!women!as!competent!but!did!not!do!so!for!the!perception!

of! men! as! competent! (e.g.,! Glick,! Larsen,! Johnson,! &! Branstiter,! 2005;!

Heilman! &! Stopeck,! 1985).! For! their! part,! Rudman! and! Borgida! (1995)!

find!that!men!considered!women!to!be!less!competent!after!having!just!

been! exposed! to! a! sexualized! image! of! another! woman.! Finally,! in! a!

study!more!directly!related!to!ours,!Heflick!and!Goldenberg!(2009)!find!

evidence! that!focusing!on!the!physical!appearance!of!a!woman!(which!

could!occur!when!the!woman!is!exposed!to!a!piropo)!vs.!focusing!on!her!

person!decreased!the!level!of!competency!with!which!she!is!perceived.!

Therefore,! we! expect! that! this! result! will! also! be! the! case! with! this!

study.! In! terms! of! warmth,! given! that! the! gallant! piropo( reflects! a!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 235!
!

traditional!view!of!women,!it!would!be!expected!that!women!who!react!

positively! to! the! piropo( would! be! perceived! as! more! sociable! than!

women!who!react!with!displeasure!(Hypothesis!1b).!

! In! terms! of! the! capacity! for! leadership! with! which! women! are!

perceived!based!on!their!reactions!to!a!gallant! piropo,(we!hypothesize!

(Hypothesis!2)!that!women!who!feel!good!about!such!a!piropo!would!be!

perceived!as!having!less!capacity!for!leadership!than!woman!who!react!

with! anger! or! indifference.! According! to! the! “role! congruity! theory! of!

prejudice! toward! female! leaders”! (Eagly! &! Karau,! 2002),! when! women!

comply!with!feminine!stereotypes,!they!are!perceived!as!weak!leaders.!

In!our!case,!we!could!say!that!this!result!would!happen!to!women!who!

happily!accept!the!piropo(and!the!objectification!that!it!implies.!!

! Finally,! we! have! included! a! new! measurement! to! evaluate!

women! based! on! their! reaction! to! a! piropo:! “superficiality/depth.”!

According!to!the!dictionary!of!the!Spanish!Royal!Academy!of!Language!

(RAE,!2014b),!superficial!refers!to!the!“apparent,!without!soundness!or!

substance;! the! frivolous,! without! basis,”! whereas! someone! who! has!

depth! is! someone! “of! a! penetrating! or! profound! understanding.! A!

philosopher,!a!mathematician,!or!a!person!with!deep!wisdom”!(2014c).!

In! everyday! parlance! in! Spain,! it! is! very! common! to! hear! expressions!

about!whether!a!person!(especially!a!woman)!is!more!or!less!superficial!

(depth! is! less! used,! being! the! antithesis! of! the! aforementioned! end! of!

the!spectrum).!In!this!manner,!for!example,!on!the!internet,!it!is!easy!to!

find!self@administered!tests!for!a!woman!to!know!whether!she!is!more!
236! CHAPTER!5!
!

or! less! superficial! (http://ocio.redmujer.com/tests/personalidad/eres@

superficial.html;! http://siempremujer.com/test@abc/eres@una@mujer@

superficial/61073/;! https://survey.zohopublic.com/zs/YSCNGt)! and!

recommendations! to! strive! against! superficiality!

(http://www.sportmagister.com/reportaje.asp?id_rep=5337&idTest=13

3).!Hypothesis!3!establishes!that!women!who!feel!good!when!hearing!a!

piropo(will!be!perceived!as!being!more!superficial!(with!less!depth)!than!

those!who!react!with!anger.!

! Two!studies!are!included!in!this!analysis.!The!first!study!analyzes!

how! women! are! evaluated! based! on! how! they! feel! when! hearing! a!

gallant!piropo.(The!second!study!analyzes!what!other!implications!arise!

from!perceiving!a!woman!as!being!superficial!or!as!having!depth.!

Study!1!

A! scenario! methodology! was! used,! presenting! the! participants!

with!the!description!of!a!situation!in!which!a!woman!received!a!gallant!

piropo,! including! how! she! felt! when! receiving! it! and! her! evaluation! of!

the! situation.! After! presenting! the! scenario,! we! included! a! series! of!

items! to! evaluate! how! the! participants! perceived! the! woman! in! the!

vignette! in! the! areas! of! competency,! warmth,! leadership,! and!

superficiality/depth.!!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 237!
!

Method!

Participants!

A! total! of! 118! first@year! students! in! the! schools! of! psychology!

and!social!work!from!a!university!in!the!south!of!Spain!(M!=!19.81!years!

old;! SD( =! 2.91),! the! majority! being! women! (79.7%),! answered! the!

questions.!

Procedure!

The! students’! participation! in! completing! a! questionnaire! was!

requested!in!exchange!for!class!credit.!This!study!uses!an!experimental!

design! with! one! single! independent! variable! with! three! levels! (happy!

reaction! vs.! anger! vs.! indifference! when! exposed! to! a! piropo).! On! a!

random! basis,! 40! participants! were! assigned! the! scenario! with! the!

happy! reaction,! 39! the! scenario! with! the! angry! reaction,! and! 39! the!

scenario!with!the!indifferent!reaction.!!

In!all!of!the!groups,!the!participants!were!asked!to!imagine!what!

was!being!described!in!the!scenario.!

“Imagine(the(following(situation:(

(( Lucía(is(walking(along(the(street(alone.(She(is(walking(briskly(and(

thinking(to(herself,(without(paying(too(much(attention(to(what(is(going(

on(around(her.(When(she(crosses(the(road,(she(realizes(that(she(is(about(

to(pass(by(a(square(where(a(group(of(young(guys(are(sitting(on(a(bench(

and(looking(at(her.(She(continues(walking(and(passes(by(without(looking(
238! CHAPTER!5!
!

at( them( or( paying( attention( to( what( they( are( doing.( Then,( as( she( is(

passing,(one(raises(his(voice(and(says(to(her:((

“Giiiirl,-careful-with-those-bonbons,-they-melt-in-the-sun!”-

Up! until! this! point,! the! scenario! was! identical! for! the! three!

reactions;!next,!the!questionnaire!included!a!brief!paragraph!describing!

the!effect!that!the!piropo(had!on!the!woman:!

1)!In!the!“happy”!reaction:!The(girl(feels(good(when(she(hears(the(

piropo(because(it(brings(her(happiness(and(optimism(and(increases(her(

selfBesteem.(Far(from(irritating(or(bothering(her,(the(piropo(improves(her(

mood.!

2)!In!the!“angry”!reaction:!The(girl(feels(bad(when(she(hears(the(

piropo(because(it(causes(her(anger,(irritation,(and(annoyance.(Far(from(

feeling(happy,(the(piropo(makes(her(feel(undervalued(and(puts(her(in(a(

bad(mood.!!

3)! In! the! “indifferent”! reaction:! The( girl( is( neither( happy( nor(

angry( about( the( piropo;( it( simply( does( not( produce( any( emotion( or(

special(reaction(in(her.(We(can(say(that(her(reaction(is(indifferent.!

Next,! the! participants! answered! the! dependent! measurements,!

which!appeared!in!the!following!order.!

1)(Competence(and(warmth.(Three!descriptors!attributed!to!the!

woman!in!the!scenario!were!used!to!measure!competence!(competent,(

intelligent,( capable)! (α! =! .83)! and! four! to! measure! warmth! (attentive,(

romantic,( affectionate,( kind)! (α! =! .79).! The! descriptors! concerning!

competence!came!from!the!work!of!Heflick!and!Goldenberg!(2009),!and!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 239!
!

those! concerning! sociability! were! taken! from! Barreto,! Ellemers,!

Piebinga,!and!Moya!(2010).!The!participants!had!to!answer!in!a!seven@

point!Likert@type!answer!format!ranging!from!1!(strongly!disagree)!to!7!

(totally!agree).!!

2)(Leadership.!We!included!six!items!to!measure!the!capacity!for!

leadership!that!was!given!to!the!protagonist!of!the!vignette,!inspired!by!

the!Affective@Identity!measurement!of!the!Motivation!to!Lead!Subscale!

(Chan!&!Drasgow,!2001).!The!person!had!to!show!his!or!her!agreement!

or! disagreement! using! a! scale! of! 1! (no! agreement)! to! 7! (total!

agreement).! Examples! of! the! items! include! the! following:! “I! think! that!

Lucia…”;!“If!she!were!a!university!student,!she!would!be!a!good!student!

representative”;!and!“If!she!worked!in!a!company,!she!would!be!able!to!

perform! perfectly! in! an! executive! position.”! The! alpha! of! this!

measurement!was!.75.!

3)!Superficiality/depth.!With!the!aim!of!measuring!this!category,!

we!conducted!a!previous!pilot!study!that!analyzed!the!assessment!of!a!

series! of! characteristics! and! preferences! as! superficial! or! deep.! To!

create!the!different!items,!we!used!information!gathered!from!experts!

and!from!online!forums,!posts,!and!websites!about!this!topic.!A!total!of!

55! first@year! students! from! a! social! work! school! in! the! south! of! Spain!

(73%! women,! n! =! 40),! with! an! average! age! of! 20.68! years! old! (SD( =!

4.79),! completed! the! assessments.! The! participants! completed! a!

questionnaire! that! had! 12! items! about! a! person’s! different! behaviors,!

habits,!or!interests!(see!Table!1),!and!they!were!asked!to!evaluate!them!
240! CHAPTER!5!
!

as! characteristic! of! a! superficial! person! or! a! person! with! depth! on! a!

scale!of!1!(superficial)!to!7!(depth).!!

No! differences! were! found! between! men! and! women! in! the!

evaluation! of! the! different! items.! Furthermore,! as! shown! in! Table! 1,!

there!were!significant!differences!with!the!scale’s!midpoint!(using!!t@test!

for! only! one! sample)! in! all! of! the! items,! except! for! 3! and! 9.! Table! 1!

shows! that! four! items! were! associated! with! the! superficial! end! of! the!

spectrum!and!six!with!the!depth!end!of!the!spectrum.!

!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 241!
!

!
Table! 1.! Descriptive! statistics! of! the! items! in! the! pilot! study! in! the!
“behavior,!habits,!and!interests”!category.!
!

Scale!1!(superficial)!@7!(depth,!reflective)!

! Min.! Max.! Mean! SD!

1.!Likes!to!see!informative!shows!
1.00! 7.00! 4.63!b! 1.65!
on!TV!
2.! One! of! the! things! they! value!
most! about! their! job! is! the! 2.00! 7.00! 5.37!b! 1.25!
relationships!with!colleagues!
3.!Despite!having!a!family,!would!
1.00! 7.00! 4.26! 1.39!
not!resign!from!a!job!
4.!Enjoys!reading!good!literature! 1.00! 7.00! 5.02!b! 1.69!
5.! Would! like! to! marry,! have!
1.00! 7.00! 3.3!a! 1.74!
children,!and!stop!working!
6.!Enjoys!going!shopping! 1.00! 6.00! 2.93!a! 1.55!
7.! Has! many! professional!
1.00! 7.00! 5.18!b! 1.27!
aspirations!
8.!Likes!to!talk!about!deep!topics!
that! concern! their! ideas! and! 2.00! 7.00! 5.89!b! 1.31!
feelings!
9.! One! of! the! things! they! most!
value! about! their! job! is! the!
1.00! 7.00! 4.31! 1.67!
possibility! of! advancement! and!
promotion!
10.! Is! very! concerned! with! the!
2.00! 7.00! 5.59!b! 1.31!
political!situation!of!our!country!
11.!Likes!to!talk!about!superficial!
1.00! 7.00! 2.90!a! 1.74!
topics!with!some!friends!
12.! Likes! to! watch! reality! shows!
1.00! 6.00! 2.57!a! 1.39!
on!TV!

*Note:( Because( they( differ( significantly( from( the( average( of( the( scale,(
the( average( scores( of( items( considered( superficial( appear( with( the(
subscript(a(and(those(of(the(items(considered(deep(with(the(subscript(b.(
242! CHAPTER!5!
!

In! Study! 1,! the! participants! were! asked! to! imagine! what! would!

be! tastes! and! preferences! of! Lucia,! the! protagonist! of! the! scene!

presented! in! the! scenario,! using! the! information! they! had! about! her.!

The!six!characteristics!that!had!been!rated!significantly!as!deep!and!the!

four!that!were!rated!as!superficial!in!the!pilot!study!were!included!(see!

Table! 1).( The! participants! were! asked! to! answer! by! showing! their!

agreement!or!disagreement!with!the!different!characteristics!in!a!seven@

point! Likert@type! answer! format! ranging! from! 1! (no! agreement)! to! 7!

(total! agreement),! depending! on! whether! they! thought! the!

characteristic! described! Lucia.! For! the! analyses,! the! four! items!

concerning!superficiality!were!inverted,!and!the!average!of!the!total!was!

calculated!so!that!higher!scores!indicated!that!the!person!was!perceived!

as!having!more!depth!(α!=!.81).!

4)! SocioBdemographic( information.( Finally,! information! on! sex,!

age,!and!the!degree!that!was!being!pursued!was!requested.!!

Results!

All! of! the! dependent! variables! were! analyzed! using! a! two@way!

ANOVA,! introducing! information! about! the! woman’s! “reaction”! to! the!

piropo! (joy,! anger,! and! indifference! reactions)! and! the! participant’s!

gender! as! the! two! between@subjects! factors! (see! Table! 2).! The!

participants’! ratings! about! how! they! perceived! women! in! terms! of!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 243!
!

competence,! warmth,! leadership! skills,! and! superficiality/depth! were!

taken!as!the!dependent!variables.!

In!the!competence!measurement,!the!effect!of!the!experimental!

manipulation!turned!out!to!be!significant,!F(2,!118)!=!4.85,!!p(<!.05,!η2!!=!

.08,! confirming! Hypothesis! 1a.! Post! hoc! Bonferroni! tests! revealed! that!

the! woman! in! the! joy! reaction! condition! was! significantly! perceived! as!

less!competent!(M!=!4.32,!SD!=!.97)!than!the!woman!in!the!anger!(M!=!

4.98,!SD!=!1.08)!(p!<!.05)!and!indifference!(M!=!4.91,!SD!=!.95)!(p!<!.05)!

conditions.!In!this!measurement,!there!was!also!a!marginally!significant!

effect! of! sex,! F(2,! 118)! =! 4.85,! p( <! .05,! η2! ! =! .08;! thus,! in! general,! the!

women!evaluated!the!woman!in!the!scenario!as!being!more!competent!

(M!=!4.80,!SD!=!1.03)!than!the!men!did!(M!=!4.47,!SD!=!1)!(p!=!.06).!!

Table!2.!Means!(and!standard!deviations)!for!measures!by!experimental!
condition!and!gender.!

Measure! Joy!reaction! Anger!reaction! Indifference!reaction!

! Women!!!!!!!!!Men!!!!!!!!!!!!
Women!!!!! Men!!!!!!!!!Women!! Men!!!!!!!!!!
(N!=!34)! (N!=!6)! (N!=!29)! (N!=!10)! (N!=!31! (N!=!8)!

4.42!! 3.72!! 5.05! 4.8!! 4.99!! 4.62!!

Competence!!
(1.0)! (.44)! (1.07)! (1.13)! (.95)! (.93)!

4.31!! 3.96!! 3.98! 3.97! 3.67!! 4.06!!

Warmth!
(.96)! (1.18)! (1.29)! (1.23)! (.9)! (.98)!

4.11! 4.33!! 4.11! 4.48!! 3.9!! 4.12!!

Leadership!
(1.06)! (.57)! (1.08)! (.7)! (.65)! (.98)!

3.68!! 3.17!! 4.71!! 4.31!! 4.42!! 4.26!!

Superficiality/!
Depth! (.9)! (.7)! (.63)! (.73)! (.59)! (.51)!
244! CHAPTER!5!
!

In! terms! of! warmth! and! the! capacity! for! leadership,! the! main!

effects!of!sex!and!!experimental!manipulation!were!not!significant,!nor!

was! the! interaction! between! the! two! variables.! Therefore,! neither!

Hypothesis!1b!nor!Hypothesis!2!was!confirmed.!!

In! terms! of! the! ratings! concerning! superficiality/depth,!

Hypothesis! 3! was! confirmed! because! we! found! a! main! effect! of! the!

experimental!manipulation!“woman’s!reaction!to!the!piropo,”!F(2,!118)!

=!15.07,!p!<!.000,!η2!!=!.21,!and!of!the!participant’s!sex,!F(2,!118)!=!4.61,!

p!<!.05,!η2!!=!.04.!Post!hoc!Bonferroni!tests!revealed!that!the!woman!in!

the! joy! reaction! condition! was! significantly! perceived! as! having! less!

depth! (that! is,! as! being! more! superficial)! (M! =! 3.6,! SD! =! .89)! than! the!

woman!in!the!anger!(M!=!4.61,!SD!=!.67)!(p!<!.000)!and!indifference!(M!=!

4.39,! SD! =! .58)! (p! <! .000)! conditions.! The! woman! who! reacted! with!

anger!and!the!woman!who!reacted!with!indifference!were!perceived!in!

the! same! manner! in! this! area.! In! terms! of! sex,! the! women! rated! the!

woman! in! the! scenarios! as! having! more! depth! (regardless! of! her!

reaction)!(M!=!4.24,!SD!=!.85)!than!the!men!did!(M!=!4.01,!SD!=!.80).!!

Discussion!

As!we!predicted,!the!reactions!of!the!female!protagonists!of!the!

different!piropo(scenarios!affected!the!manner!in!which!the!participants!

perceived!them!in!terms!of!competence!and!superficiality/depth.!When!

the!woman!was!happy!to!receive!a!piropo,(she!was!viewed!as!being!less!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 245!
!

competent! and! more! superficial! than! when! she! reacted! with! anger! or!

with! indifference.! However,! the! findings! did! not! support! the! idea! that!

the!manner!in!which!a!woman!reacts!to!a!piropo(affects!the!manner!in!

which! she! is! viewed! in! terms! of! sociability! and! the! capacity! for!

leadership.!

This!study!presents!some!important!new!findings!that!show!that!

the!manner!in!which!a!woman!experiences!piropos(has!an!influence!on!

the!impression!that!she!has!on!others,!not!only!in!terms!of!competence!

but!also!in!terms!of!superficiality/depth.!There!exists!an!ample!literature!

on! the! importance! of! competence! in! the! perception! of! others.!

Competence!(i.e.,!intelligence,!power,!efficacy,!and!skill),!also!defined!as!

the! capacity! that! is! attributed! to! others! to! carry! out! their! plans,! is!

something!that!is!valued!in!people!and!in!groups!(Fiske,!Cuddy,!&!Glick,!

2007),!and!it!has!been!linked!to!status!(groups!with!high!status!tend!to!

be! viewed! as! being! more! competent! than! those! of! low! status).!

Perceiving! a! person! as! having! little! competence! has! important!

consequences! for! how! they! are! perceived! in! other! areas,! such! as!

leadership! and! interpersonal! attraction,! or! in! organizational! terms!

(Cuddy,!Glick,!&!Beninger,!2011).!!!

In!contrast!to!what!occurs!with!competence,!there!are!no!studies!

that!show!the!consequences!that!arise!from!labeling!someone!as!being!

more! or! less! deep! or! superficial.! For! example,! is! the! person! who! is!

perceived! as! having! more! depth! better! valued! than! the! person! who! is!

considered! superficial?! To! analyze! some! of! these! consequences,! we!

246! CHAPTER!5!
!

designed! Study! 2,! including! general! assessments! of! superficial! people!

and!people!with!depth,!in!addition!to!as!their!consideration!in!different!

everyday!life!activities.!

Study!2!

Despite!the!idea,!upheld!by!certain!segments!of!the!population,!

that! piropos,( when! they! are! not! lewd,! are! positive! for! women,! the!

findings!from!Study!1!show!that!the!women!who!are!happy!to!receive!a!

gallant! piropo( are! “penalized,”! being! considered! ! less! competent! and!

deep!(or!more!superficial).!To!explore!the!possible!positive!and!negative!

connotations! that! these! perceptions! of! superficiality/depth! have,! we!

designed!this!second!study.!We!presented!participants!with!descriptions!

of! two! different! types! of! women:! a! superficial! woman! and! a! woman!

with! depth,! based! on! some! of! the! characteristics! previously! piloted! in!

Study!1.!After!each!description,!we!included!a!series!of!measurements!

to! evaluate! the! impression! that! had! been! formed! about! each! of! the!

women,!and!we!asked!the!participants!the!probability!with!which!they!

would! like! to! become! involved! with! previously! described! women! in!

different!types!of!activities.!!

Method!

Participants!

!A! total! of! 172! third@year! psychology! students! from! a! university!

in! the! south! of! Spain! (M! =! 21.75! years! old,! SD( =! 4.43),! mostly! women!

(77.3%),!answered!the!survey.!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 247!
!

Procedure!

The!students’!participation!in!completing!the!questionnaire!was!

requested!in!exchange!for!class!credit.!!!

We! designed! an! experimental! between@subject! study.! Two!

questionnaire! models! that! varied! in! the! order! of! the! measurements!

were! used.! On! a! random! basis,! 85! participants! answered! the!

questionnaire! that! first! presented! the! description! of! the! woman! with!

depth! and! then! the! description! of! the! superficial! woman,! and! 87! saw!

the!description!of!the!superficial!woman!first!and!then!the!description!

of!the!woman!with!depth.!Eight!of!the!piloted!items!that!were!included!

in! Study! 1! and! that! appear! in! Table! 1! were! used! for! the! description.!

Concretely,!the!participants!were!asked!to!“imagine!a!woman!with!the!

following! characteristics,”! and! they! were! then! presented! with! items! 2,!

7,! 8,! and! 10! as! characteristic! of! the! woman! described! as! having! depth!

and! items! 5,! 6,! 11,! and! 12! as! characteristic! of! the! superficial! woman.!

The!terms!“superficial”!and!“deep”!did!not!appear!in!the!descriptions.!

Once! the! participants! had! imagined! the! woman! in! the!

description,!they!completed!the!following!assessments:!

1)( Perception( of( the( woman.! Using! a! seven@point! Likert@type!

response!format,!the!respondents!were!asked!to!indicate!a)!what!type!

of! impression! that! person! had! on! them! (from! 1! @very! negative@! to! 7! @

very!positive);!b)!the!esteem!with!which!they!held!the!described!person!

(from! 1! @very! low@! to! 7! @high);! c)! the! importance! they! thought! that! a!

person!such!as!that!could!have!in!their!life!(from!1!@little!importance@!to!
248! CHAPTER!5!
!

7!@very!important);!and!d)!to!what!degree!they!would!like!to!be!like!this!

person!(from!1!@not!at!all)!to!7!@a!lot@).!!

2)( Activities( in( which( you( would( become( involved( with( her.(

Subsequently,! they! were! presented! with! a! list! of! 10! items! that!

represented!different!types!of!activities!or!roles,!and!they!were!asked!to!

mark!the!probability!with!which!they!would!like!to!become!involved!in!

each!of!them!with!the!woman!who!was!described,!using!a!seven@point!

Likert@type! response! format! ranging! from! 1! (no! probability)! to! 7! (all!

probability).!Five!of!the!items!were!concerned!with!aspects!tied!to!the!

personal! realm! (i.e.,! “being! your! best! friend”)! and! the! other! five! with!

more!mundane!activities!from!everyday!life!(i.e.,!“talking!to!you!while!in!

line!at!the!supermarket”).!!

3)( SocioBdemographic( information.( Finally,! information! on! sex,!

age,!and!the!major!that!was!being!pursued!was!requested.!!

Results!

Before! proceeding! to! the! main! analysis,! t@tests! were! conducted!

for! each! of! the! measurements,! taking! into! consideration! the! order! in!

which! they! had! been! presented.! With! the! exception! of! two! items,! the!

order!in!which!the!superficial!and!deep!descriptions!were!presented!did!

not!influence!the!participants’!responses.!!

All!dependent!variables!were!analyzed!using!a!two@way!ANOVA,!

introducing!the!two!different!women!described!(the!superficial!woman!

and! the! woman! with! depth)! and! the! participant’s! gender! as! the! two!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 249!
!

between@subjects!factors.!Only!in!one!of!the!14!measurements!did!sex!

interact! with! the! repeated! measure1.! However,! in! practically! all! of! the!

items,!there!were!differences!depending!on!whether!they!were!applied!

to!a!superficial!woman!or!a!woman!with!depth.!Table!3!shows!that!the!

woman! with! depth! made! a! better! impression! on! the! participants,! was!

more! highly! esteemed,! was! considered! important! in! their! lives,! and!

induced! a! higher! preference! to! be! like! her.! Regarding! the! different!

activities/roles! presented,! there! was! a! significant! difference! in! the!

scores!for!every!characteristic.!The!woman!with!depth!was!preferred!for!

nine! of! the! different! activities.! “Being! your! hairdresser”! was! the! only!

role! in! which! there! was! no! significant! differences! between! the!

superficial!woman!and!the!deep!woman.!

Discussion!

As!we!suspected,!people!formed!a!more!negative!opinion!of!the!

woman!who!was!described!as!having!characteristics!typical!of!someone!

who!is!superficial!and!a!more!positive!opinion!of!a!person!with!depth.!

Compared! to! the! superficial! person,! the! woman! with! depth! made! a!

better!impression,!was!held!in!higher!esteem,!and!was!considered!more!

important!in!the!lives!of!the!participants,!and!the!participants!indicated!

that! they! would! like! to! be! more! like! her.! Simultaneously,! the! woman!

with! depth! was! preferred! for! all! of! the! suggested! activities! and! tasks,!

ranging!from!those!that!implied!more!intimacy!and!emotional!support,!

time!spent!together,!or!joint!work!to!the!more!casual!activities!such!as!
250! CHAPTER!5!
!

going! out! for! drinks! or! having! an! informal! conversation.! The! only!

exception! was! the! item! “being! your! hairdresser,”! where! there! was! no!

difference! between! the! superficial! woman! and! the! woman! who! had!

more!depth.!Despite!these!preferences!for!the!person!with!more!depth!

for!practically!all!of!the!activities,!if!the!scores!in!Table!3!are!analyzed,!

the! fact! that! the! difference! with! the! superficial! person! is! greater! in!

those!activities!that!we!could!consider!to!be!more!important!in!life!(i.e.,!

being! a! best! friend,! being! source! of! emotional! support,! helping! in!

making!important!decisions)!can!be!observed.!

! !
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 251!
!

!
Table! 3.! Means! (and! standard! deviations)! for! measures! about! the!
superficial!person!and!the!person!with!depth!(N!=!172)!!

Superficial! Person!with!
Measure! F!
person! depth!
1.!What!impression!did!this!person! 3.16!(1.34)! 6.06!(1.06)! 377.94***!
have!on!you?!(1!negative,!7!positive)!
2.!What!degree!of!esteem!would!
3.68!(1.42)! 5.67!(1.09)! 186.02***!
you!have!for!this!person?!(1!very!
little,!7!a!lot)!
3.!How!important!do!you!think!that!
a!person!like!this!would!be!in!your! 3.07!(1.47)! 5.50!(1.11)! 280.31***!
life?!(1!not!important,!7!very!
important)!
4.!To!what!degree!would!you!like!to!
1.95!(1.23)! 5.53!(1.22)! 478.45***!
be!like!this!person?!(1!not!at!all,!7!a!
lot)!
2.98!(1.5)! 5.41!(1.23)! 225.51***!
1.!!Being!your!best!friend!
4.22!(1.59)! 5.09!(1.5)! 35.54***!
2.!Travelling!with!you!in!Bla!Bla!Car!!
2.49!(1.49)! 5.53!(1.32)! 283.32***!
3.!!Being!your!emotional!support!!
2.98!(1.54)! 5.41!(1.34)! 159.73***!
4.!!Being!your!instructor!at!the!gym!!
5.!!Being!your!partner!in!a!class! 2.48!(1.45)! 5.88!(1.21)! 293.92***!
project!!
3.97!(1.68)! 5.46!(1.35)! 65.44***!
6.!!Going!out!with!you!for!a!beer!!
7.!!Helping!you!with!a!very! 2.11!(1.40)! 5.81!(1.24)! 409.77***!
important!!decision!in!your!life!
4.3!(1.49)! 3.96!(1.64)! 2.68!
8.!!Being!your!hairdresser!!
9.!!Being!your!housemate!! 3.85!(1.66)! 4.37!(1.74)! 12.32**!

10.!Talking!to!you!at!the! 3.76!(1.64)! 4.27!(1.57)! 7.72**!

supermarket!!
!
***!p!<!.000;!**!p!<!.01;!*p!<!.05!!
252! CHAPTER!5!
!

General!Discussion!

Despite! being! a! very! common! form! of! sexual! objectification! in!

Spain! and! other! Spanish@speaking! and! Mediterranean! countries,! there!

are!barely!any!studies!on!how!piropos!are!perceived!by!the!population,!

especially! by! women,! or! on! the! consequences! that! they! have! for!

women.!!

In!terms!of!the!social!perception!or!attitudes!toward!the!piropo,(

we!have!already!noted!that,!in!the!Spanish!media!and!social!networks,!

there! appears! to! be! a! clear! consensus! on! rejecting! lewd! piropos( and!

more! differences! of! opinion! with! regard! to! gallant! piropos,! which! are!

accepted! by! some! and! rejected! by! others.! On! the! other! hand,! the!

results! of! the! few! studies! that! exist! (Moya@Garófano,! Megías! et! al.,!

2015)! have! shown! that,! for! the! most! part,! piropos( are! considered!

objectifying;! that! when! they! are! lewd,! they! are! viewed! as! unpleasant;!

and!that!although!they!are!not!clearly!rejected!as!the!lewd!piropos(are,(

when!they!are!“gallant,”!they!are!not!viewed!as!positive,!either.!It!has!

also! been! found! that! the! better! perceived! a! piropo( is,! the! less!

objectifying! it! is! thought! to! be,! with! the! dangerous! consequences! for!

women! that! this! phenomenon! could! imply.! Furthermore,! the!

assessment! of! lewd! and! gallant! piropos( is! highly! correlated! (Moya@

Garófano,!Megías!et!al.,!2015).!!

In! terms! of! the! consequences! that! receiving! piropos( has! for!

women,!it!has!been!found!that!lewd!piropos(provoke!reactions!of!anger,!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 253!
!

sadness,! anxiety,! helplessness,! and! little! joy! or! sense! of! power! (Moya@

Garófano,! Megías! et! al.,! 2015;! Moya@Garófano,! Rodríguez@Bailón,!

Megías,! &! Moya,! 2015).! Although! they! do! not! produce! consequences!

that! are! as! negative! as! the! lewd! piropos,! gallant! piropos! also! do! not!

provoke! the! supposed! positive! consequences! (i.e.,! increase! in! self@

esteem)!that!some!people!claim!(Moya@Garófano,!Megías!et!al.!2015).!

The! aim! of! these! two! studies! was! to! contribute! to! the!

understanding!of!the!other!consequences!that!receiving!gallant!piropos(

could!have.!Based!on!the!literature!on!peoples’!perception!and!attitudes!

about!gender!roles!and!the!objectification!of!women,!we!have!explored!

how! women! would! be! perceived! based! on! whether! they! are! happy! or!

angry!when!they!receive!a!gallant!piropo.!!

The!findings!confirm!that,!when!receiving!a!gallant!piropo(from!a!

stranger,!the!types!of!reactions!and!feelings!that!the!woman!may!have!

influence!how!she!is!perceived:!as!less!competent!and!more!superficial!

if!she!is!happy!(instead!of!becoming!angry!or!reacting!with!indifference).!

The! fact! that! the! significant! differences! are! between! reacting! with!

happiness! and! the! other! two! conditions! suggests! that! the! important!

thing!is!not!so!much!reacting!with!anger!or!indifference!but!rather!being!

happy!to!receive!a!gallant!piropo((precisely!what!some!people!contend).!

Competence! and! warmth! are! two! basic! characteristics! in! social!

cognition,!both!for!individuals!and!for!groups.!The!manner!in!which!we!

perceive! others! in! these! areas! has! important! consequences! for! our!

relationships!with!them!(Fiske,!Cuddy,!&!Glick,!2007;!Wojciszke,!2005).!
254! CHAPTER!5!
!

Concretely,! considering! someone! to! be! more! or! less! competent!

influences! how! he! or! she! is! perceived! in! terms! of! leadership,! in! his! or!

her! assessment! as! a! political! candidate,! in! terms! of! interpersonal!

attraction,! or! whether! he! or! she! is! hired! and! promoted! within! an!

organization,!to!cite!some!of!the!areas!that!have!been!studied!(Cuddy,!

Glick,!&!Beninger,!2011).!On!the!other!hand,!the!prescriptive!aspect!of!

female!gender!stereotypes!(i.e.,!what!women!should!be)!indicates!that!

women! ought! to! be! communal! (i.e.,! kind,! thoughtful,! and! sensitive! to!

others’! feelings)! (Rudman! &! Glick,! 2001)! and! not! competent! (Eagly! &!

Mladinic,! 1994),! at! least! in! the! masculine! realms.! For! example,! studies!

conducted! using! the! Stereotype! Content! Model! (Fiske,! Cuddy,! Glick,! &!

Xu,! 2002)! have! shown! that! traditional! women! (housewives)! appear! in!

the! cluster! that! is! liked! but! disrespected! (perceived! as! warm! but! not!

competent),! whereas! nontraditional! women! (female! professionals)!

appear! in! the! cluster! that! is! respected! but! disliked! (perceived! as!

competent!but!not!warm).!The!results!of!our!first!study!show!that!the!

perception! of! women! based! on! their! response! to! piropos( reflects! the!

same!situation!that!many!women!in!leadership!positions!or!who!work!in!

masculine!fields!face:!if!they!behave!in!line!with!feminine!stereotypes,!

then!they!may!be!viewed!as!“nice”!but!incompetent.!Our!findings!also!

reflect! certain! similarities! with! the! results! of! research! on! confronting!

sexism:!women!are!not!expected!to!confront!it,!or!if!they!do,!then!they!

will!do!so!in!a!non@aggressive,!indirect,!but!private!manner,!conforming!

to!traditional!gender!prescriptions!(e.g.,!Becker!&!Barreto,!2014;!Gervais!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 255!
!

&!Hillard,!2014).!!In!our!case,!when!women!are!happy!about!receiving!a!

piropo,! they! are! viewed! as! less! competent! than! if! they! would! have!

rejected! it! or! appeared! indifferent.! The! decrease! in! the! perception! of!

competence!in!the!woman!who!received!the!piropo(with!pleasure!could!

contribute! to! the! perpetuation! of! the! traditional! subordinate! role! of!

women.!!

In! terms! of! the! superficiality! or! depth! with! which! people! are!

perceived,!an!area!that!is!highly!present!in!the!everyday!parlance!of!the!

Spanish! population! but! that! has! not! been! empirically! studied,! it! was!

necessary!to!first!develop!a!measurement!of!these!characteristics.!The!

results! of! the! pilot! that! was! included! in! Study! 1! helped! us! obtain!

information! about! a! set! of! traits,! interests,! and! preferences! that!

differentiate! superficial! people! from! people! with! depth.! Once! the!

characteristics! of! superficial! people! and! of! people! with! depth! were!

obtained,!the!results!from!Study!1!showed!with!a!great!degree!of!clarity!

that!the!woman!who!reacted!with!pleasure!to!the!piropo!was!perceived!

as! being! considerably! more! superficial! (having! less! depth)! than! the!

woman! who! reacted! with! displeasure.! Even! more! important,! as! the!

findings!from!Study!2!show,!perceiving!someone!as!being!superficial!or!

as! having! depth! can! have! notable! consequences! for! social! interaction.!

Our! participants! indicated! that,! in! general! (and! not! only! for! important!

matters),!they!preferred!a!person!with!depth!to!a!superficial!person.!

Ultimately,!in!contrast!to!those!who!contend!that!gallant!piropos(

have!positive!consequences!for!the!women!who!receive!them!(“sweets!
256! CHAPTER!5!
!

never!made!anyone!bitter”)!or!even!in!contrast!to!those!who!claim!that!

piropos! are! not! important! and! that! there! is! nothing! to! be! alarmed!

about,!“as!many!feminists!are”!(e.g.,!García,!2015),!our!research!shows!

that,! in! general,! people! tend! to! punish! women! who! are! pleased! to!

receive! this! type! of! piropo.! These! findings! reinforce! the! results! from!

other! studies! that! have! shown! the! different! negative! consequences! of!

lewd! piropos( (Moya@Garófano,! Megías! et! al.,! 2015;! Moya! Garófano,!

Rodríguez@Bailón! et! al.,! 2015)! and! the! absence! of! the! alleged! positive!

consequences!of!gallant!piropos!(Moya@Garófano,!Megías!et!al.,!2015).!

! These! two! studies! have! certain! limitations! that! future! research!

should! attempt! to! resolve.! First,! the! participants! in! both! studies! were!

almost! exclusively! university! students.! Although! we! believe! that! their!

reactions!closely!reproduce!the!reactions!of!women!in!general,!it!would!

be! necessary! to! replicate! these! results! with! samples! from! the! general!

population.! Second,! the! perceptions! of! people! in! terms! of!

superficiality/depth!are!something!that!is!relatively!new!that!could!have!

great! relevance,! not! only! for! the! analysis! of! piropos( but! also! for! the!

analysis! of! the! perceptions! of! people! more! generally.! Thus,! more!

research!that!corroborates!its!importance!and!its!implications!for!social!

perception!is!needed.!Finally,!although!it!implies!additional!difficulty,!it!

would! be! interesting! to! go! from! social! perception! to! live! interaction!

with! women! who! react! in! different! ways! to! the! piropos.
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 257!
!

References!

Abele,! A.! E.,! &! Wojciszke,! B.! (2007).! Agency! and! communion! from! the!

perspective!of!self!versus!others.!Journal(of(Personality(and(Social(

Psychology,(93,!751–763.!doi:10.1037/[email protected]!

Agudo,!A.!(2015,!January!19).!Carmona,!no!estás!sola![Carmona,!you!are!

not! alone].! [Web! log! post].! Retrieved! from:!

http://blogs.elpais.com/mujeres/2015/01/carmona@no@estás@

sola.html!

Barreto,!M.,!Ellemers,!N.,!Piebinga,!L.!&!Moya,!M.!(2010).!How!nice!of!us!

and! how! dumb! of! me:! The! effect! of! exposure! to! benevolent!

sexism!on!women’s!task!and!relational!self@descriptions.!Sex(Roles,(

62,!532@544.!doi:10.1007/s11199@009@9699@0!

Bartky,! S.! (1990).! Femininity( and( domination:( Studies( in( the(

phenomenology( of( oppression.! New! York:! Routledge.!

doi:10.1017/s0829320100002921!!

Becker,! J.! C.! &! Barreto,! M.! (2014).! Ways! to! go:! Men’s! and! women’s!

support!for!aggressive!and!nonaggressive!confrontation!of!sexism!

as! a! function! of! gender! identification! Journal( of( social( Issues,( 70,!

668@686.!doi:10.1111/josi.12085!

Becker,! J.! C.,! Zawadzki,! M.! J.,! &! Shields,! S.! A.! (2014).! Confronting! and!

reducing! sexism:! a! call! for! research! on! intervention.! Journal( of(

Social(Issues,(70,!603@614.!doi:0.1111/josi.12081!
258! CHAPTER!5!
!

Bowman,!C.!G.!(1993).!Street!harassment!and!the!informal!ghettoization!

of!women.!Harvard(Law(Review,(106,!517@580.!

Calogero,!R.!M.!(2011).!Operationalizing!self@objectification:!Assessment!

and! related! methodological! issues.! In! R.! M.! Calogero,! S.! Tantleff@

Dunn,! &! J.! K.! Thompson! (Eds.),! SelfBObjectification( in( women:(

Causes,( consequences,( and( counteractions! (pp.! 23@49).!

Washington! DC:! American! Psychological! Association.!

doi:10.1037/12304@002!

Calogero,! R.! M.,! Tantleff@Dunn,! S.,! &! Thompson,! J.! K.! (2011).! SelfB

Objectification( in( women:( Causes,( consequences,( and(

counteractions.! Washington! DC:! American! Psychological!

Association.!doi:10.1037/12304@002!

Chan,! K.! Y.,! &! Drasgow,! F.! (2001).! Toward! a! theory! of! individual!

differences!and!leadership:!Understanding!the!motivation!to!lead.!!

Journal(of(Applied(Psychology,(86,!481@98.!

Cruz,!S.!(2015,!July!23).!Un!año!sin!piropos!en!Bélgica![One!year!without!

piropos!in!Belgium].!Info(Libre([Free(Info].!Retrieved!from:!!

! http://infolibre.es/noticias/ctxt/2015/07/23/un_ano_sin_piropos

_belgica_35809_1601.html!

Cuddy,!A.!J.!C.,!Fiske,!S.!T.,!&!Glick,!P.!(2007).!The!BIAS!Map:!Behaviors!

from!intergroup!affect!and!stereotypes.!Journal(of(Personality(and(

Social(Psychology,(92,!631–648.!doi:10.1037/[email protected]!

Cuddy,!A.!J.!C.,!Glick,!P.,!&!Beninger,!A.!(2011).!The!dynamics!of!warmth!

and! competence! judgments,! and! their! outcomes! in! organization.!

 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 259!
!

Research( in( Organizational( Behavior,( 31,( 73@98.!

doi:10.1016/j.riob.2011.10.004!

Czopp,!A.!M.,!&!Monteith,!M.!J.!(2003).!Confronting!prejudice!(literally):!

Reactions! to! confrontations! of! racial! and! gender! bias.! Bulletin(

Personality( and( Social( Psychology,( 29,! 532@544.!

doi:10.1177/0146167202250923!

Dodd,!E.!H.,!Guiliano,!T.,!Boutell,!J.,!&!Moran,!B.!E.!(2002).!Respected!!or!!

rejected:!!Perceptions!of!women!who!confront!sexist!remarks.!Sex(

Roles,(45,!567@77.!

Eagly,! A.! H.,! &! Karau,! S.! J.! (2002).! Role! congruity! theory! of! prejudice!

toward! female! leaders.! Psychological( Review,( 109,! 573–598.!

doi:10.1037//[email protected]!

Eagly,! A.! H.,! &! Mladinic,! A.! (1989).! Gender! stereotypes! and! attitudes!

toward! women! and! men.! Personality( and( Social( Psychology(

Bulletin,(15,!543–558.!

Fairchild,! K.,! &! Rudman,! L.! (2008).! Everyday! stranger! harassment! and!

women’s! objectification.! Social( Justice( Research,( 21,! 338–357.!

doi:10.1007/s11211@008@0073@0!

Feagin,!J.!R.,!&!Sikes,!M.!P.!!(1994).!Living(with(racism:(The(Black(middleB

class(experience.!Boston:!!Beacon!Press.!

Ferreras,!C.!(2015,!January!15).!Quieren!prohibir!el!piropo![They!want!to!

forbid! the! piropo].! La( Opinión( de( Zamora( [Zamora’s! Opinion].!

Retrieved!from:!!

! http://www.laopiniondezamora.es/opinion/2015/01/15/quieren@
260! CHAPTER!5!
!

prohibir@piropo/815536.html!

Fiske,! S.! T.,! Cuddy,! A.! J.! C.,! &! Glick,! P.! (2007).! Universal! dimensions! of!

social! perception:! Warmth! and! competence.! Trends( in( Cognitive(

Science,(11,!77@83.!doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.005!

Fiske,! S.! T.,! Cuddy,! A.! J.,! Glick,! P.,! &! Xu,! J.! (2002).! A! model! of! (often!

mixed)!stereotype!content:!Competence!and!warmth!respectively!

follow! from! perceived! status! and! competition.! Journal( of(

Personality( and( Social( Psychology,( 82,! 878@902.!

doi:10.1037//[email protected]!

Fredrickson,! B.,! &! Roberts,! T.! (1997).! Objectification! Theory:! Toward!

understanding!women´s!lived!experiences!and!mental!health!risks.!

Psychology(of(Women(Quarterly,(21,!173@206.!doi:10.1111/j.1471@

6402.1997.tb00108.x!

Fredrickson,!B.,!Roberts,!T.,!Noll,!S.,!Quinn,!D.,!&!Twenge,!J.!M.!(1998).!

That!swimsuit!becomes!you:!Sex!differences!in!self@objectification,!

restrained! eating,! and! math! performance.! Journal( of( Personality(

and( Social( Psychology,( 1,! 269@284.! doi:10.1037/0022@

3514.75.1.269!!

Fridlizius,! N.! (2009).! Me( gustaría( ser( baldosa…Un( estudio( cualitativo(

sobre(el(uso(actual(de(los(piropos(callejeros(en(España([I!would!like!

to!be!a!paving!stone…!A!qualitative!study!about!the!current!use!of!

street! piropos! in! Spain]! (Doctoral! dissertation,! Göteborgs!

Universitet).!Retrieved!from:!!

! https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/21649?mode=full!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 261!
!

Gapinski,! K.! D.,! Brownell,! K.! D.,! &! LaFrance,! M.! (2003).! Body!

objectification!and!“Fat!talk”:!Effects!on!emotion,!motivation,!and!

cognitive! performance.! Sex( Roles,( 48,! 377@388.!

doi:10.1023/A:1023516209973!

García,! J.! (2015).! ¿Prohibimos! también! el! piropo?! [Are! we! also!

forbidding!the!piropo?].!La(Verdad![The!truth].!Retrieved!from:!!

! http://blogs.laverdad.es/menudapolitica/2015/01/14/prohibimos@

tambien@el@piropo/!

Gervais,!S.!J.,!&!Hillard,!A.!L.!(2014).!Confronting!sexism!as!persuasion:!

effects! of! a! confrontation’s! recipient,! source,! message,! and!

context.! Journal( of( Social( Issues,( 70,! 653@667.!

doi:10.1111/josi.12084!

Gervais,! S.! J.,! Hillard,! A.! L.,! &! Vescio,! T.! K.! (2010).! Confronting! sexism:!

The! role! of! relationship! orientation! and! gender.! Sex( Roles,( 63,!

463–474.!doi:10.1007/s11199@010@9838@7!

Glick,! P.! &! Fiske,! S.! T.! (2001).! Ambivalent! sexism.! In! M.! P.! Zanna! (Ed.),!

Advances(in(experimental(social(psychology,!(Vol.!33,!pp.!115@188).!

Thousand!Oaks,!CA:!Academic!Press.!!

Glick,! P.,! Fiske,! S.! T.,! Mladinic,! A.,! Saiz,! J.! L.,! Abrams,! D.,! Masser,! B.,!

Adetoun,! B.,! Osagie,! J.! E.,! Akande,! A.,! Alao,! A.,! Brunner,! A.,!

Willemsen,! T.! M.,! Chipeta,! K.,! Dardenne,! B.,! Dijksterhuis,! A.,!

Wigboldus,! D.,! Eckes,! T.,! Six@Materna,! I.,! Expósito,! F.,! Moya,! M.,!

Foddy,!M.,!Kim,!H@J.,!Lameiras,!M.,!Sotelo,!M.!J.,!Mucchi@Faina,!A.,!

Romani,!M.,!Sakalli,!N.,!Udegbe,!B.,!Yamamoto,!M.,!Ui,!Ferreira,!M.!
262! CHAPTER!5!
!

C.! &! López! López,! W.! (2000).! Beyond! prejudice! as! simple!

antipathy:!Hostile!and!benevolent!sexism!across!cultures.!Journal(

of(Personality(and(Social(Psychology,(79,!763@775.!!

! doi:10.1037//[email protected]!

Glick,!P.,!Larsen,!S.,!Johnson,!C.,!&!Branstiter,!H.!(2005).!Evaluations!of!

sexy! women! in! low@and! high! status! jobs.! ! Psychology( of( Women(

Quarterly,(29,!389@395.!doi:10.1111/[email protected].!

Haverkate,! H.! (2000).! Estrategias! de! cortesía.! Análisis! intercultural!

[Politeness! strategies.! Cross@cultural! analysis)].! Forma( y( Función(

[Form! and! Function],( 13,! 17@30.! Retrieved! from:!

http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/07/0

7_0043.pdf!

Heflick,! N.,! &! Goldenberg,! J.! (2009).! Objectifying! Sarah! Palin:! Evidence!

that! objectification! causes! women! to! be! perceived! as! less!

competent! and! less! fully! human.! Journal( of( Experimental( Social(

Psychology,(45,!598–601.!doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.02.008!

Heilman,!M.!E.!&!Stopeck,!M.!H.!(1985).!!Being!attractive,!advantage!or!

disadvantage?!Performance@based!evaluations!and!recommended!

personnel!actions!as!a!function!of!appearance,!sex,!and!job!type.!!

Organizational( Behavior( and( Human( Decision( Processes,( 35,! 202@

215.!

Kaiser,!C.!R.,!&!Miller,!C.!T.!(2001).!Stop!complaining!!The!social!costs!of!

making! attributions! to! discrimination.! Personality( and( Social(

Psychology(Bulletin,(27,!254–263.!doi:10.1177/0146167201272010!
 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 263!
!

La!presidenta!del!Observatorio!contra!la!Violencia!de!Género!pide!que!

se! erradique! el! piropo! [The! president! of! the! Observatory! of!

Violence!against!women!ask!for!the!eradication!of!piropo].!(2015,!

January! 9).! El( Periódico! [The! Newspaper].! Retrieved! from:!

http://www.elperiodico.com/es/noticias/sociedad/observatorio@

contra@violencia@genero@pide@vetar@piropo@3838083!

Moya@Garófano,! Megías,! J.! L.,! Rodríguez@Bailón,! R.! A.,! &! Moya,! M.!

(2015).!Objectifying(in(Both(Ways:(The(Effects(of(Lewd(and(Gallant(

“Piropos”.!Manuscript!submitted!for!publication.!!

Moya@Garófano,! Rodríguez@Bailón,! R.! A.,! Megías,! J.! L.,! &! Moya,! M.!

(2015).! Women’s( reactions( to( objectifying( behaviours( (‘piropos’):(

The(moderating(role(of(selfB(objectification.!Manuscript!submitted!

for!publication.!!

Nussbaum,! M.! C.! (1999).! Sex( and( social( justice.! New! York:! Oxford!

University!Press.!!

Quinn,!D.!M.,!Kallen,!R.!W.,!Twenge,!J.!M.,!&!Fredrickson,!B.!L.!(2006).!

The! disruptive! effect! of! self@objectification! on! performance.!

Psychology( of( Women( Quarterly,( 30,! 59–64.! doi:10.1111/j.1471@

6402.2006.00262.x!

Real! Academia! Española.! (2014a).! Piropo! [Piropo].! In( Diccionario( de( la(

lengua( española( [Dictionary! of! the! Spanish! language]! (23rd! ed.).!

Madrid,! Spain:! Author.! Retrieved! from:!

htttp://buscon.rae.es/srv/search?id=Qnd2pX8okE2x5wMBqzWG!
264! CHAPTER!5!
!

Real!Academia!Española.!(2014b).!Superficial![Superficial].(In(Diccionario(

de( la( lengua( española( [Dictionary! of! the! Spanish! language]! (23rd!

ed.).! Madrid,! Spain:! Author.! Retrieved! from:!

http://dle.rae.es/?id=Yjdcjrg!

Real! Academia! Española.! (2014c).! Profundo/a! [Profound/Deep].( In(

Diccionario( de( la( lengua( española( [Dictionary! of! the! Spanish!

language]! (23rd! ed.).! Madrid,! Spain:! Author.! Retrieved! from:!

http://dle.rae.es/?id=UIvby3V!

Rudman,! L.! A.,! &! Borgida,! E.! (1995).! The! afterglow! of! construct!

accessibility:!The!behavioral!consequences!of!priming!men!to!view!

women! as! sexual! objects.! Journal( of( Experimental( Social(

Psychology,(31,!493@517.!

Rudman,! L.! A.,! &! Glick,! P.! (2001).! Prescriptive! gender! stereotypes! and!

backlash!toward!agentic!women.!Journal(of(Social(Issues,(57,!743–

762.!

Sust,! I.! (2015,! January! 25).! Me! gusta! [I! like! it].! El( Periódico! [The!

Newspaper].! Retrieved! from:!

http://www.elperiodico.com/es/noticias/opinion/gusta@3879684!

Swim,! J.! K.,! &! Hyers,! L.! L.! (1999).! Excuse! me–what! did! you! just! say?:!

Women’s! public! and! private! responses! to! sexist! remarks.! Journal(

of( Experimental( Social( Psychology,( 35,! 68–88.!

doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1370!

Wiener,! R.,! Gervais,! S.,! Allen,! J.,! &! Marquez,! A.! (2013).! Eye! of! the!

beholder:! Effects! of! perspective! and! sexual! objectification! on!

 WOMEN’S!REACTIONS!TO!PIROPOS!AND!THEIR!PERCEPTION!! 265!
!

harassment! judgments.! Psychology,( Public( Policy,( and( Law,( 19,!

206@221.!doi:!10.1037/a0028497!

Wojciszke,! B.! (2005).! Morality! and! competence! in! person! and! self!

perception.!European(Review(of(Social(Psychology,(16,!155–188.!

!
 !

!
!

Chapter 6:

Conclusions/Conclusiones
 !

!
 CONCLUSIONS!! 269!
!

This!doctoral!dissertation!has!focused!on!sexual!objectification,!a!

very! frequent! form! of! objectification! that! is! especially! harmful! for!

women.! As! seen! in! Chapter! 1,! being! treated! as! a! sexual! object! is! an!

experience!from!which!almost!all!women!in!our!culture!suffer!and!more!

often!than!men!(Calogero,!Tantleff@Dun,!&!Thompson,!2011,!p.!4).!!

One!of!the!main!consequences!for!women!of!being!considered!in!

a!sexually!objectifying!way!is!that,!over!time,!and!after!being!exposed!to!

this! experience! from! their! childhood,! they! can! internalize! a! vision! of!

themselves!as!observers;!an!effect!that!is!called!self@objectification.!

Since!Fredrickson!and!Roberts!(1997)!formulated!objectification!

theory,! numerous! investigations! have! shown! the! dangerous!

consequences!that!self@objectification!has!for!women,!affecting,!among!

others,! their! physical! and! mental! health! (e.g.,! depression,! sexual!

dysfunctions,!eating!disorders,!etc...).!

The! research! included! in! this! thesis! has! tried! to! generate!

objectifying! situations! through! the! exposure! of! scenarios! with! piropos!

and!measure!their!effects.!!

Piropos,! which! are! usually! understood! as! remarks! about!

women’s! appearance,! are! very! common! in! Spain,! as! well! as! in! other!

Latin!and!Mediterranean!countries.!They!are!usually!directed!at!women!

on! the! street,! and! they! come! from! unknown! men.! Although! it! is! said!

that! their! use! has! declined! in! recent! years! (Fridlizius,! 2009;! Preisig,!

1998),! they! are! still! frequent! in! women’s! daily! lives! (Jiménez,! 2015;!

“Sobre! el! Viejo,”! 2015),! and! they! vary! in! their! nature:! some! of! them!
270! CHAPTER!6!
!

being!clearly!labeled!as!lewd!and!hostile,!and!other!considered!as!more!

gallant!and!even!flattering.!!

Despite!the!fact!that!piropos!are!a!controversial!phenomenon!in!

Spain,! as! far! as! we! know! there! has! been! no! research! on! their!

psychosocial! effects.! In! order! to! deepen! about! the! nature! of! these!

objectifying! behaviors! and! their! consequences! the! results! of! eight!

studies! were! shown! in! the! present! doctoral! dissertation.! In! these!

studies!we!addressed!the!following!issues.!!

a)! A! self>objectification! measure! adapted! to! our! context:! The!

Objectified!Body!Consciousness!Scale!(OBCS)!

Since!self@objectification!was!going!to!be!a!variable!presented!in!

most! of! our! studies,! and! considering! the! importance! of! having! a! valid!

and!reliable!instrument!adapted!to!our!context!to!assess!it,!in!Chapter!2!

we!included!two!studies!conducted!to!validate!a!Spanish!version!of!the!

OBCS! (McKinley! &! Hyde,! 1996).! Study! 1! presented! the! first!

psychometric! data! of! the! scale! and! its! relation! with! other! empirically!

and! theoretically!relevant! variables.! Study!2!allowed!us!to!corroborate!

the!three@factor!structure!of!the!OBCS!(Body!Surveillance,!Body!Shame,!

and!Body!Control!Beliefs,)!as!well!as!good!convergent!validity!in!relation!

to! the! self@objectification! questionnaire! (SOQ)! (Noll! &! Fredrickson,!

1998),! another! self@objectification! measure.! The! three! subscales!

showed! acceptable! indices! of! internal! consistency! in! both! studies.!

Although!the!validation!of!the!Spanish!version!of!the!OBCS!was!carried!
 CONCLUSIONS!! 271!
!

out!with!female!university!students,!it!has!proved!to!be!an!equally!valid!

measure!in!other!studies!with!women!from!a!different!population,!also!

included!in!this!thesis.!

b)-Piropos!as!objectifying!behaviors!

In! order! to! have! a! wide! range! of! piropos! currently! used! in! the!

Spanish!context,!in!Study!1!of!Chapter!3!we!asked!Spanish!students!of!

both!sexes!to!report!piropos!that!they!often!hear.!We!selected!piropos!

of!very!different!types!and!another!sample!of!students!evaluated!them!

on! different! dimensions.! Our! objective! was! to! analyze! how! these!

piropos! were! perceived! in! terms! of! objectification! (i.e.,! if! they! were!

objectifying!or!not)!and!in!terms!of!how!they!were!valued!(if!they!were!

perceived! positively! or! negatively).! We! found! that! the! more! positively!

the!piropo!was!evaluated,!the!less!objectifying!it!was!considered.!

In!view!of!the!results,!we!concluded!that!piropos(are!objectifying!

behaviors,! not! only! because! they! conform! to! the! definitions! of! sexual!

objectification! given! by! different! authors,! but! also! because! they! are!

qualified! as! objectifying! by! most! women! and! men.! For! us,! this! fact! is!

another!sign!of!the!hidden!dangers!of!these!objectifying!behaviors!that!

are! so! deeply! rooted! in! our! society.! Similarly—as! occurs! with!

benevolent! sexism—there! is! a! risk! of! not! identifying! as! harmful! what!

apparently!appears!as!“gallant”!or!“chivalrous”!(Glick!&!Fiske,!2001).!
272! CHAPTER!6!
!

c)!The!consequences!of!piropos!for!women!!

! Another! objective! of! this! dissertation! was! to! analyze! the!

consequences! (e.g.,! reactions! and! emotions)! of! receiving! a! piropo! and!

distinguishing!between!those!that!are!lewd!and!gallant.!In!order!to!meet!

this! goal,! we! conducted! a! study! with! female! undergraduate! students!

(Chapter!2,!Study!2)!who!were!exposed!to!a!scenario!with!a!clearly!rude!

piropo(or!a!gallant!one!(a!control!group!was!not!exposed!to!any!piropo).!

We! asked! the! participants! to! evaluate! the! piropo! and! to! indicate! how!

they!thought!they!would!react!in!that!situation.!Women!exposed!to!the!

lewd!piropo!reported!different!emotions!in!comparison!to!women!in!the!

control! group:! less! joy,! sadness,! and! power! and! more! anxiety,!

helplessness,! and! anger.! Consequences! and! reactions! toward! gallant!

piropos! were! less! clear.! In! comparison! to! the! lewd! piropo! condition,!

participants! exposed! to! the! gallant! piropo! scenario! reported! more! joy!

and! power,! and! less! helplessness.! However,! compared! to! the! control!

group,!there!were!just!differences!in!sadness.!Therefore,!we!did!not!find!

the!positive!effects!that!some!people!assume!that!gallant!piropos!have!

(e.g.,! feeling! more! powerful! or! happy;! Ferreras,! 2015;! Posadas,! n.d.).!

The! fact! is! that!women!exposed!to!a!gallant! piropo!did!not!feel!better!

than! those! who! did! not! receive! any! type! of! piropo.! The! last! study! of!

Chapter! 3! (Study! 3)! also! allowed! us! to! get! more! information! about!

piropos.! In! this! case,! the! same! group! of! women! evaluated! the! gallant!

and!the!lewd!piropos!that!were!previously!used!in!Study!2.!The!results!
 CONCLUSIONS!! 273!
!

showed!that!the!participants’!evaluations!of!the!piropos!influenced!their!

reactions,!regardless!of!whether!the!piropo!was!lewd!or!gallant.!!

! Once! we! had! explored! some! of! the! effects! that! piropos! had! on!

women’s! emotions! and! feelings! of! power! and! helplessness,! we!

dedicated!the!next!chapter!to!test!if!some!of!these!consequences!may!

be!influenced!by!participants’!own!level!of!self@objectification.!!

d)! Women’s! reactions! to! piropos- depending! on! their! self>

objectification!levels!

Some! previous! research! has! shown! that! reactions! to! an!

objectifying! situation! depend! on! the! self@objectification! levels! of! the!

people!being!objectified.!Specifically,!research!about!state!and!trait!self@

objectification! has! found! that! state! self@objectification! is! especially!

harmful! for! women! who! are! high! in! trait! self@objectification! (e.g.,!

Fredrickson,!Roberts,!Noll,!Quinn,!&!Twenge,!1998;!Gapinski,!Brownell,!

&! LaFrance,! 2003).! To! analyze! whether! this! could! also! happen! in! the!

case! of! the! piropos,! in! Chapter! 4! we! conducted! a! study! with! a! wide!

range! of! women! from! different! ages! and! characteristics.! We! analyzed!

some!of!the!emotional!consequences!of!the!exposition!to!a!lewd!piropo,!

as!well!as!the!moderator!role!of!women’s!self@objectification.!We!found!

that! women’s! reactions! to! the! piropo! were! generally! negative! (e.g.,!

experiencing!less!joy!and!power,!and!more!anger!and!helplessness),!but!

less!negative!in!those!women!high!in!trait!self@objectification.!Therefore,!

our! findings! added! a! new! contribution! to! the! multiple! negative!

274! CHAPTER!6!
!

consequences!of!self@objectification!that!have!already!been!described!in!

the! literature.! Participants’! self@objectification! levels! affect! the! way! in!

which! piropos! are! received.! Even! in! the! case! of! the! lewd! piropos( (the!

ones! clearly! rejected! by! most! of! the! population),! the! higher! women!

were! in! trait! self@objectification,! the! more! their! reactions! seems! to!

conform! to! traditional! gender! roles! (this! is,! they! experienced! more!

happiness! and! power! and! less! anger! and! helplessness).! This! result!

highlights!the!high!level!of!danger!for!women!who!are!high!in!trait!self@

objectification!when!they!face!objectifying!situations!(piropos)!because!

their! reactions! (more! joy! and! power,! and! less! anger! and! helplessness)!

could! lead! them! to! fail! to! reject! this! kind! of! behavior! that! has! already!

been!demonstrated!to!be!pernicious.!!

In! the! last! empirical! chapter,! we! explored! a! different!

consequence!of!piropos,!analyzing!their!effects!not!in!women,!but!in!the!

way! that! other! people! perceive! them! based! on! how! they! react! to!

piropos.!!

e)! How! women’s! reactions! to! piropos! influence! the! way! other!

people!judge!them!!

Piropos! generate! very! different! reactions! among! the! Spanish!

population! (Agudo,! 2015),! going! from! those! expressed! by! people! who!

claim!that!they!have!to!be!eliminated!(“La!Presidenta,”!2015),!to!others!

who! vindicate! them! (Sust,! 2015),! and! a! last! group! who! considers! that!

some!piropos!(the!lewd!ones)!should!not!be!tolerated,!but!that!others!
 CONCLUSIONS!! 275!
!

(the! gallant! ones)! are! pleasant! and! enjoyable.! Considering! previous!

research! about! traditional! gender! roles! and! confronting! sexism! (e.g.,!

Cuddy,! Fiske,! &! Glick,! 2007;! Gervais,! Hillard,! &! Vescio,! 2010),! we!

hypothesized!that!it!could!be!possible!for!a!woman!who!was!pleased!by!

receiving! a! gallant! piropo( to! somehow! adjust! herself! to! the! feminine!

traditional! role! and,! therefore,! she! would! be! perceived! according! to!

such!visions!(e.g.,!less!competent,!more!superficial).!To!test!these!ideas,!

in! Chapter! 5! we! ran! two! studies.! The! first! one! explored! how! women!

were!perceived!based!on!their!reaction!to!piropos.!University!students!

from! both! sexes! estimated! the! competence,! sociability,! capacity! of!

leadership,! and! superficiality/depth! of! a! woman! who! reacted! with!

happiness,! anger,! or! indifference! after! receiving! a! gallant! piropo.! The!

results! showed! that! the! woman! who! reacted! positively! (with! joy)! was!

perceived!as!being!less!competent!and!more!superficial!than!the!other!

two! women! who! got! angry! or! indifferent.! Thus,! despite! the! fact! that!

some! people! (women! and! men)! defend! the! use! of! gallant! piropos! and!

send!the!message!that!they!are!positive!for!women,!at!the!same!time,!

when! women! are! pleased! by! and! cheered! up! after! a! piropo,! they! are!

somehow! “punished”! for! that.! Findings! from! the! second! study,! also!

included! in! Chapter! 5,! added! a! new! contribution! to! the! literature! that!

explores! perceived! competence! and! sexual! objectification! (e.g.,!

Gapinski,! Brownell,! &! LaFrance,! 2003;! Quinn,! Kallen,! Twenge,! &!

Fredrickson,! 2006)! regarding! a! new! dimension! in! other! people’s!

perceptions:! superficiality/depth.! In! this! study,! we! asked! male! and!

276! CHAPTER!6!
!

female! undergraduate! students! to! evaluate! a! superficial! woman! and! a!

woman!with!depth.!The!results!showed!that!the!woman!with!depth!was!

clearly! preferred! and! that! the! superficial! woman! was! not! chosen! for!

almost!any!important!role!or!activity!in!people’s!lives.!!

Limitations!and!future!directions!

As! we! previously! indicated! throughout! the! different! empirical!

chapters! included! in! this! dissertation,! our! research! has! certain!

limitations.! First,! most! of! the! studies! have! been! conducted! with!

undergraduate! participants.! Therefore,! it! would! be! important! to!

consider! other! kinds! of! populations! for! future! studies.! A! second!

limitation! is! the! use! of! scenarios! to! analyze! the! consequences! of!

piropos.! Although! it! is! a! very! sensitive! issue,! the! use! of! more! natural!

situations!could!increase!the!validity!of!our!research.!A!third!limitation!

has! to! do! with! the! similar! consequences! of! piropos! explored! in! the!

present!work.!We!think!that!it!would!be!important!for!future!studies!to!

focus!on!other!kinds!of!effects!that!piropos(may!have!on!women!(e.g.,!

performance,!identity,!etc.).!!

Other!questions!have!also!emerged!as!a!result!of!our!studies!that!

we!would!like!to!explore!in!the!future.!Thus,!it!would!be!interesting!to!

analyze!different!contexts!and!piropos’!sources.!We!think,!for!instance,!

that!the!attractiveness!of!a!man!who!delivers!a!piropo!could!affect!the!

way! a! woman! experiences! it.! Similarly,! reactions! would! be! different,!

depending!on!where!the!piropo!is!expressed;!for!example,!a!piropo!in!an!
 CONCLUSIONS!! 277!
!

amusement! context! (e.g.,! a! disco)! would! differ! from! another! one!

expressed!in!a!traditional!setting!(e.g.,!on!the!street).!!

As!has!been!explained!in!this!thesis,!the!piropo!is!a!reality!that!is!

deeply!linked!to!a!specific!cultural!context.!To!study!it!in!other!contexts!

could! inform! on! how! cultural! norms! and! rules! are! linked! to! the!

experiences! of! objectification! and! self@objectification.! Finally,! and!

connected! to! the! consideration! of! the! piropo! as! a! cultural! product,!

focusing! on! men! (the! ones! who! make! the! piropo)! could! be! also!

interesting! (e.g.,! What! leads! men! to! perform! these! behaviors?! What!

effects!do!they!think!piropos!have!on!women?).!

Many! doubts,! difficulties,! and! uncertainties! are! faced! when!

someone!conducts!research!(and!a!paradigmatic!example!of!this!is!the!

realization!of!a!doctoral!dissertation).!There!are!often!multiple!paths!to!

take!and,!by!choosing!a!particular!one,!we!doubt!whether!or!not!it!was!

the!right!one,!considering!that!perhaps!other!roads!could!have!led!us!to!

more!rewarding!goals.!Regardless!of!whether!or!not!we!were!successful,!

looking!back!and!valuing!these!years!of!work,!I!appreciate!what!I!have!

learned!from!the!studies!conducted:!passion!for!research,!especially!for!

those! aspects! related! to! our! psychological! and! social! reality,! and! the!

desire! for! investigation! to! continue! to! help! to! improve! the! society! in!

which! we! live,! in! our! case! contributing! to! relations! that! are! more!

egalitarian!and!free!between!men!and!women.!

!
278! CHAPTER!6!
!

References!

Agudo,!A.!(2015,!January!19).!Carmona,!no!estás!sola![Carmona,!you!are!

not! alone].! [Web! log! post].! Retrieved! from:!

http://blogs.elpais.com/mujeres/2015/01/carmona@no@estás@

sola.html!

Calogero,! R.! M.,! Tantleff@Dunn,! S.,! &! Thompson,! J.! K.! (2011).! SelfB

Objectification( in( women:( Causes,( consequences,( and(

counteractions.! Washington! DC:! American! Psychological!

Association.!doi:10.1037/12304@002!

Cuddy,!A.!J.!C.,!Fiske,!S.!T.,!&!Glick,!P.!(2007).!The!BIAS!Map:!Behaviors!

from!intergroup!affect!and!stereotypes.!Journal(of(Personality(and(

Social(Psychology,(92,!631–648.!doi:10.1037/[email protected]!

Ferreras,!C.!(2015,!January!15).!Quieren!prohibir!el!piropo![They!want!to!

forbid! the! piropo].! La( Opinión( de( Zamora( [Zamora’s! Opinion].!

Retrieved!from:!!

! http://www.laopiniondezamora.es/opinion/2015/01/15/quieren@

prohibir@piropo/815536.html!

Fredrickson,! B.,! &! Roberts,! T.! (1997).! Objectification! Theory:! Toward!

understanding!women´s!lived!experiences!and!mental!health!risks.!

Psychology(of(Women(Quarterly,(21,!173@206.!doi:10.1111/j.1471@

6402.1997.tb00108.x!

Fredrickson,!B.,!Roberts,!T.,!Noll,!S.,!Quinn,!D.,!&!Twenge,!J.!M.!(1998).!

That!swimsuit!becomes!you:!Sex!differences!in!self@objectification,!
 CONCLUSIONS!! 279!
!

restrained! eating,! and! math! performance.! Journal( of( Personality(

and(Social(Psychology,(1,!269@284.!!

doi:10.1037/[email protected]!!

Fridlizius,! N.! (2009).! Me( gustaría( ser( baldosa…Un( estudio( cualitativo(

sobre(el(uso(actual(de(los(piropos(callejeros(en(España([I!would!like!

to!be!a!paving!stone…!A!qualitative!study!about!the!current!use!of!

street! piropos! in! Spain]! (Doctoral! dissertation,! Göteborgs!

Universitet).!Retrieved!from:!!

! https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/21649?mode=full!

Gapinski,! K.! D.,! Brownell,! K.! D.,! &! LaFrance,! M.! (2003).! Body!

objectification!and!“Fat!talk”:!Effects!on!emotion,!motivation,!and!

cognitive! performance.! Sex( Roles,( 48,! 377@388.!

doi:10.1023/A:1023516209973!

Gervais,! S.! J.,! Hillard,! A.! L.,! &! Vescio,! T.! K.! (2010).! Confronting! sexism:!

The! role! of! relationship! orientation! and! gender.! Sex( Roles,( 63,!

463–474.!doi:10.1007/s11199@010@9838@7!

Glick,! P.! &! Fiske,! S.! T.! (2001).! Ambivalent! sexism.! In! M.! P.! Zanna! (Ed.),!

Advances(in(experimental(social(psychology,!(Vol.!33,!pp.!115@188).!

Thousand!Oaks,!CA:!Academic!Press.!!

Jiménez,! S.! (2015,! July! 4).! Así! se! vive! un! día! sufriendo! piropos! [The!

experience! of! suffering! piropos! during! a! whole! day].! El( Mundo(

[The! World].! Retrieved! from:!

http://www.elmundo.es/espana/2015/07/04/5596e707268e3eb

a2b8b459a.html!
280! CHAPTER!6!
!

La!presidenta!del!Observatorio!contra!la!Violencia!de!Género!pide!que!

se! erradique! el! piropo! [The! president! of! the! Observatory! of!

Violence!against!women!ask!for!the!eradication!of!piropo].!(2015,!

January! 9).! El( Periódico! [The! Newspaper].! Retrieved! from:!

http://www.elperiodico.com/es/noticias/sociedad/observatorio@

contra@violencia@genero@pide@vetar@piropo@3838083!

McKinley,! N.,!&!Hyde,!J.!S.!(1996).!The!Objectified!Body!Consciousness!

Scale.! Development! and! validation.! Psychology( of( Women(

Quarterly,(20,!181@215.!doi:10.1111/[email protected]!

Noll,!S.!M.,!&!Fredrickson,!B.!L.!(1998).!A!mediational!model!linking!self@

objectification,! body! shame,! and! disordered! eating.! Psychology(

of( Women( Quarterly,( 22,! 623–636.! doi:10.1111/j.1471@

6402.1998.tb00181.x!

Posadas,! C.! (n.d.).! Un! piropo,! por! favor! [A! piropo,! please].! [Web! log!

post].! Retrieved! from:! http://www.carmenposadas.net/noticias@

home.php?offset=125!

Quinn,! D.! M.,!Kallen,!R.!W.,!Twenge,!J.!M.,!&!Fredrickson,!B.!L.!(2006).!

The! disruptive! effect! of! self@objectification! on! performance.!

Psychology(of(Women(Quarterly,(30,!59–64.!doi:10.1111/j.1471@

6402.2006!

Preisig,! G.! (1998).! Una( investigación( sobre( el( piropo( español( [An!

investigation! of! the! Spanish! piropo].! (Doctoral! dissertation,! The!

University! of! British! Columbia).! Retrieved! from!

https://circle.ubc.ca/handle.!
 CONCLUSIONS!! 281!
!

Sobre! el! viejo! (no)! arte! de! los! piropos! [About! the! old! (non)! art! of!

piropos]! (2015,! March! 17).! Retrieved! from:!

http://pareceamorperonoloes.com/tag/piropo/!

Sust,! I.! (2015,! January! 25).! Me! gusta! [I! like! it].! El( Periódico! [The!

Newspaper].!Retrieved!from:!!

! http://www.elperiodico.com/es/noticias/opinion/gusta@3879
!
!