Transistors and Amplifiers
Transistors and Amplifiers
Transistors and Amplifiers
DryCell
I. TRANSISTOR FUNDAMENTALS
TRANSISTOR
Developed in December 23,1947 in Bell laboratories
By John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain
Basically a resistor that amplifies electrical impulses as they are transferred
from its input to its output terminals.
Basic Types
1. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
It is a three layer semiconductor device consisting of either two N and one Ptype layers of materials or two P and one N-type layers of semiconductor
materials.
Three regions of BJT
a. Base
Region to which carriers flow from emitter to collector
1015 dopants/cm3
Lightly doped
b. Emitter
Region from which carriers flow
1019 dopants/cm3
Heavily doped
c. Collector
Region to which carriers flow
1017 dopants/cm3
Moderately doped
Largest
BJT Structure and Construction
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Alpha ()
In the dc mode the levels of IC and IE due to majority carriers are related by a quantity
called alpha and defined by the following equation:
Ic
Ie
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Ie = Ib I c
Beta ()
Ic
Ib
Gamma ()
Forward current gain for common collector configuration
=
Ie
Ib
Common
Base
moderate
highest
lowest less
than1
Common
Emitter
highest
moderate
moderate
Common
Collector
moderate
less than 1
highest
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Input
Impedance
Output
Impedance
Phase
Inversion
Applications
lowest
moderate
highest
highest
moderate
lowest
none
none
RF amp
universal
isolation
Transistor Biasing
Bias
an electrical, mechanical, or magnetic force applied to a device to establish a
desired electrical or mechanical reference level for its operation.
is a DC voltage or current that sets the operating point for amplifying the AC
signal
a. Fixed Bias
is taken from a battery or power supply
b. Self Bias
The amplifier produces its own DC voltage from an IR drop across a resistor in
the return circuit of the common terminal.
Self-bias is probably the type of bias used most often because it is economical
and has stabilizing effect on the DC level of the output current.
Can be emitter stabilized or collector stabilized
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c. Voltage-Divider Bias
The most stable type of circuit biasing
d. Signal Bias
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a. Active Region
Base-emitter junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
Transistors active operation as an amplifier
b. Saturation Region
both junctions are forward biased
switch on operation for the transistor
c. Cut off Region
both junctions are reverse biased
switch off operation for the transistor
Loadline and Q-point
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Loadline is a straight line drawn on the collector curves between the cut-off
and saturation points of the transistor
Q-point (Quiescent Point) is the operating point of the transistor with the time
varying sources out of the circuit
Review Question:
Given the circuit below, draw the DC loadline
H-Parameters:
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hi
Vi
; (Vo = 0)
Ii
Vi
(Ii = 0)
Vo
Io
( Vo = 0)
Ii
Io
(Ii = 0)
Vo
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VGS
IDSS 1
VGS(off )
ID =
JFET/D-MOSFET transfer characteristics
Can be n-channel or p-channel
JFET Symbols
Operation of JFET
JFET is always operated with the gate-source PN junction reversed biased
Reverse biasing of the gate-source junction with negative voltage produces a
depletion region along the PN junction which extends into the n-channel and
thus increases its resistance by restricting the channel width as shown in the
preceding figure.
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Depletion Mode
Negative gate to source voltage is applied
n channel is depleted of some electrons hence decreasing channel
conductivity
Enhancement Mode
positive gate voltage is applied
more conduction electrons are attracted to the channel thus enhancing channel
conductivity
Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET)
operates only in the enhancement mode
has no depletion mode
it has no structural channel
it has no IDSS parameter
for an n-channel type of this device, a positive gate voltage above threshold
induces a channel by creating a layer of negative charges (inversion layer) in
the substrate portion that is adjacent to the SiO 2 layer.
An n-channel E-MOSFET has a positive VGS while a p-channel E-MOSFET has
a negative VGS
The conductivity of its channel is enhanced by increasing the gate to source
voltage
For gate voltage below the threshold, there is no channel to be formed
If configured as a switch, this device is normally off
LD MOSEFT, VMOSFET and TMOSFET are EMOSFET technologies
developed for higher power dissipation
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II. AMPLIFIERS
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Classifications of Amplifiers:
1. According to Function
a.Voltage Amplifier
Voltage controlled source
Op-amps are voltage amplifier
b.Current Amplifier
Current controlled source
BJTs are current amplifier
c.Power Amplifier
Boost the power level of the signal
2. According to Configuration
a. Common Base Amplifier
Transistor amplifier where input is applied at the emitter and output is taken
from the collector terminal
The base is common to both input and output
Maximum current gain is 1
No phase inversion from input to output
b. Common Collector Amplifier (emitter follower)
Transistor amplifier where input is applied at the base, output is taken from the
emitter terminal
Maximum voltage gain is 1
Capacitors must have a negligible reactance at the frequency of operation
No phase inversion from input to output
c. Common Emitter Amplifier
Transistor amplifier wherein the input is applied at the base and the output is
taken from the collector terminal
There is a phase inversion from input to output
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Class A
Class B
Class C
Class AB
Efficiency
50%
78.5%
100%
Between A
&B
Conduction
Angle
360
180
Below
180
Slightly
greater
than 180
Distortion
Low
High
extreme
moderate
Bias
(base emitter)
Linear
portion
Above
cut-off
Below
cut-off
cut-off
output
output
input
output
output
output
Comparison of Amplifier Classes
4. According to Frequency
a. DC Amplifier
Amplifies DC signal(zero frequency)
b. Audio Amplifier
Amplifies signal whose frequency is within the audio range(20 Hz-20KHz)
c. RF Amplifier
Amplifies signal whose frequency is within the radio frequency range
d. IF Amplifier
Amplifies signal whose frequency is in between the carrier and the modulating
frequency
e. Video Amplifier
A wide-band amplifier that amplifies video signal
Video signal refers to the frequency range of the picture information which
arises from the television scanning process
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Compound Configurations
a. Cascade Connection
a cascade connection is a series connection with the output of one stage then
applied as input to the second stage.
The cascade connection provides a multiplication of the gain of each stage for
a larger overall gain.
Av = Av1Av2Av3.. Avn
Av(dB) = 20log (Av)
b. Cascode Connection
a cascode connection has one transistor on top of (in series with) another
This arrangement is design to provide high input impedance with low voltage
gain to ensure that the input Miller capacitance is minimum.
c. Darlington Connection
The main feature of the Darlington connection is that the composite transistor
acts a single unit with a current gain that is the product of the current gains of
the individual transistors.
It is a circuit meant to boost input resistance
D = 1 2
d. Feedback Pair
The feedback pair connection is a two-transistor circuit that operates like the
Darlington circuit
It uses a pnp transistor driving an npn.
TEST YOURSELF 8
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Review Questions
1. A PNP transistor is made of
a. silicon
b. germanium
c. carbon
d. either silicon or germanium
Answer d. either silicon or germanium
2. The transistor is usually encapsulated in
a. graphite powder
b. enamel paint
c. epoxy raisin
d. black plastic
Answer c. epoxy raisin
3. Power transistors are invariably provided with
a. solder connections
b. heat sink
c. metallic casing
d. screw bolt
Answer b. heat sink
4. The transistor specification number 2N refers to a
a. diode
b. junction transistor
c. FET with one gate
d. SCR
Answer b. junction transistor
5. Which if the following is necessary for a transistor action?
a. the base region must be very wide
b. the base region must be very narrow
c.the base region must be made from insulating materials
d. the collector region must be heavily doped
Answer b. the base region must be very narrow
6. As compared to a CB amplifier a CE amplifier has
a. low current amplification
b. higher current amplification
c. lower input resistance
d. higher input resistance
Answer b. higher current amplification
7. It is the most stable type of circuit biasing
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a. self-bias
b. signal bias
c. voltage-divider bias
d. fixed bias
Answer c. voltage-divider bias
8. The quiescent state of a transistor implies
a. zero bias
b. no output
c. no distortion
d. no input signal
Answer d. no input signal
9. Each of the 2 cascaded stages has a voltage gain of 30. What is the overall gain?
a.3
b. 9
c. 30
d. 900
Answer d. 900
Solution
Gtotal = (30)(30) = 900
10. Which class of amplifiers operates with the least distortion?
a.Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. Class D
Answer a. Class A
11. Which of the following circuit is the fastest switching device?
a. JFET
b. BJT
c. MOSFET
d. Triode
Answer c. MOSFET
12. Which of the following device is a unipolar?
a. FET
b. BJT
c. Zener diode
d. LED
Answer a. FET
13. The cascaded amplifier which is often used in the IC is
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a. inductively coupled
b. capacitively coupled
c. direct coupled
d. transformer coupled
Answer c. direct coupled
14. Highest operating frequency can be expected in case of
a. bipolar transistor
b. JFET
c. MOSFET
d. IGFET
Answer a. bipolar transistor
15. Which of the following is expected to have the highest input impedance?
a. MOSFET
b. JFET amplifier
c. CE bipolar transistor
d. CC bipolar transistor
Answer a. MOSFET
16. The ______is quite popular in digital circuits especially in CMOS which require very low power
consumption.
a. JFET
b. BJT
c. D-type MOSFET
d. E-type MOSFET
Answer d. E-type MOSFET
17. What is the amplification factor in FET transistor amplifiers?
a. Zi
b. gm
c. ID
d. IG
Answer b. gm
18. The E-MOSFET is quite popular in what type of applications.
a. digital circuitry
b. high frequency
c.buffering
d. a, b and c
Answer d. a, b and c
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26mV
8.66
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a. 60
b.15
c. 50625
d. 3078
Answer c. 50625
Solution
Vover-all = (15)(15)(15)(15) = 50 625
26. The maximum efficiency of a transformer coupled Class A amplifier is__.
a. 25
b. 50
c. 78.5
d. 100
Answer b. 50
27. In a MOSFET, the process of creating a channel by the addition of charge carrier is called.
a. inducement
b. improvement
c. balancing
d. enhancement
Answer d. enhancement
28. What is the current gain of a common base circuit called?
a. gamma
b. delta
c. bravo
d. alpha
Answer d. alpha
29. The name of the very first transistor
a. diode
b. junction transistor
c. point contact transistor
d. triode
Answer c. point contact transistor
30. Region in a transistor that is heavily doped.
a. collector
b. emitter
c. base
d. gate
Answer b. emitter
31. In a common base amplifier the voltage gain is_____.(April, 2003)
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a. medium
b. low
c. zero
d. high
Answer d. high
32. In a common collector amplifier, the input resistance is___.(Nov,2003)
a. high
b. zero
c. medium
d. low
Answer a. high
33. A depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET) can operate with which of the following gate-source
voltage? (November, 2003)
1. zero
2. positive
3. negative
a. 1 only
b. 2 only
c. 3 only
d. 1, 2 and 3
Answer b. 3 only
34. What problem is caused by a loosely coupled transformer in an RF amplifier? (April, 2004)
a. a too narrow bandpass
b. over coupling
c. optimum coupling
d. a too-wide bandpass
Answer a. a too narrow bandpass
35. Normally, how are high power tubes tested? (April, 2004)
a. visually
b. individually
c. in their circuit
d. use portable testers
Answer c. in their circuit
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