Electrical Power

Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. vi
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.0 Testing and Measurement ..................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Wattmeters or Dynamometer ................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Measuring power in single phase circuit using wattmeter .................................................... 3
1.3 Methods for measuring a 3 phase power with wattmeter ..................................................... 3
1.4 Phase angle of three phase angle by 2-wattmeter ................................................................. 6
1.5 Errors in Wattmeter reading due to connections................................................................... 7
1.6 Other sources of errors in the wattmeter ............................................................................... 9
1.7 Specialized instrument for testing electrical installation .................................................... 10
1.8 Earth electrode resistance ................................................................................................... 13
1.9 Measuring Earth electrode resistance ................................................................................. 13
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 14
2.0 Transmission and Distribution of electric Power................................................................ 14
2.1 Electric Power transmission................................................................................................ 14
2.2 Advantages of using AC power in Transmission ............................................................... 15
2.3 Electric Distribution Plant................................................................................................... 15
2.4 Types of Electrical power Distribution System .................................................................. 18
2.5 Disadvantages of radial electrical power distribution ......................................................... 18
2.6 Advantages of a closed Ring Distribution System ............................................................. 19
2.7 Importance of Transformer in transmission of power ........................................................ 19
2.8 Importance of Transformer in Distribution of electrical power.......................................... 19
2.9 Three Phase AC Power Systems ........................................................................................ 20
2.10 Electrical power Distribution Switch Gear ....................................................................... 21
2.11 Types of Switch gear ........................................................................................................ 21
2.12 What is An Arc?................................................................................................................ 22
2.13 Arc in Circuit Breakers ..................................................................................................... 22
2.14 Methods of Arc Control in circuit breakers ...................................................................... 22
2.15 Fuse Advantages and disadvantages in electrical circuit .................................................. 24
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2.16 Fuse advantages ................................................................................................................ 24

2.17 Fuse Disadvantages ........................................................................................................... 25
2.18 Fusing factor ..................................................................................................................... 25
2.19 Limitations of a Fuse ........................................................................................................ 25
2.19 Relays ................................................................................................................................ 25
2.21 Operation Of A relay ........................................................................................................ 26
2.22 Advantages of relays ......................................................................................................... 26
2.23 Disadvantages of relays .................................................................................................... 26
2.24 Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) protection relays ............................................... 27
2.25 Power factor ...................................................................................................................... 28
2.26 Power Triangle .................................................................................................................. 29
2.27 Disadvantages of low power factor in the system ........................................................... 30
2.28 Causes of low Power Factor ............................................................................................. 31
2.29 Methods for power factor improvement ........................................................................... 32
2.30 Calculating KVAR ratings and Capacitance..................................................................... 35
2.31 Tables (Capacitor sizing in kVAr and Farads for PF correction) ..................................... 35
2.32 Converting Farads into KVAR and vice-versa ............................................................... 39
2.33 Factors affecting the choice of power cable ..................................................................... 43
2.35 Cable Insulation ................................................................................................................ 45
2.36 Advantages of materials used for cable conductors .......................................................... 45
2.37 Advantages Materials used for cable insulation ............................................................... 45
2.38 Dielectric Stress ................................................................................................................ 47
2.39 Methods of stress control in high voltage cable................................................................ 47
2.40 Principle of earthing power supply systems ..................................................................... 48
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 50
3.0 DC Machines ...................................................................................................................... 50
3.1 Electric Motors Mode ......................................................................................................... 50
3.2 Principle of operation of a simple D.C. motor .................................................................... 50
3.3 Generator Mode .................................................................................................................. 51
3.4 Principle of operation of a simple Generator ...................................................................... 51
3.5 DC machine construction .................................................................................................... 55
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3.6 Classification of DC Machine ............................................................................................. 56

3.7 EMF equation of a dc machine ........................................................................................... 57
3.8 D.C generators .................................................................................................................... 61
3.9 Types of D.C, generator and their characteristics ............................................................... 61
3.10 Generator Characteristics .................................................................................................. 63
3.11 Application of Separately excited field windings ............................................................. 64
3.12 Open circuit Characteristics .............................................................................................. 66
3.13 Load characteristics .......................................................................................................... 67
3.14 Application of a shunt wound DC generators ................................................................... 67
3.15 Load characteristics of DC generator ............................................................................... 68
3.16 Open circuit characteristics ............................................................................................... 68
3.17 Application of a series wound generators ......................................................................... 68
3.18 Characteristics Compound Wound Machines ................................................................... 71
3.19 Application of compound Generators ............................................................................... 71
3.20 Source of Losses in DC machines .................................................................................... 72
3.21 Efficiency of a DC generator ............................................................................................ 72
3.22 DC Motors ........................................................................................................................ 74
3.23 Back E.M.F ....................................................................................................................... 74
3.24 Torque of a DC Motor ...................................................................................................... 75
3.25 Types of DC motor and their characteristics .................................................................... 79
3.26 Characteristics of shunt wound DC motor ........................................................................ 80
3.27 Application of Shunt wound DC motors .......................................................................... 82
3.28 Characteristics of series DC wound Motor ....................................................................... 84
3.29 Characteristics of compound wound DC Motor ............................................................... 88
3.30 Application of compound DC wound Motor .................................................................... 88
3.31 The efficiency of a DC motor ........................................................................................... 88
3.32 DC motor starter ............................................................................................................... 93
3.33 The need for Motor Starter ............................................................................................... 94
3.34 Methods of varying the speed of a DC Motors ................................................................. 94
3.35 Armature Reaction and Commutation in DC Machines ................................................. 101
3.36 Commutation in DC Machine ......................................................................................... 101
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3.37 Armature Reaction .......................................................................................................... 101

3.38 Mains magnetic field of a machines ............................................................................... 102
3.39 Armature field ................................................................................................................. 103
3.40 Methods to neutralize armature reaction and commutation in DC Machines ................ 104
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 111
4.0 Induction Motors ............................................................................................................... 111
4.1 Advantages of using a rotating magnetic field instead of stationary magnetic field ........ 111
4.2 Advantages of a Three Phase Induction Motors ............................................................... 111
4.3 Principle disadvantages of a three phase induction motor ................................................ 112
4.4 Classes of AC Machines ................................................................................................... 112
4.5 Three phase Induction Motor ............................................................................................ 112
4.6 Construction of a three phase induction motor ................................................................. 112
4.7 Squirrel cage rotor............................................................................................................. 113
4.8 Phase wound rotor............................................................................................................. 114
4.9 Production of a rotating magnetic field ............................................................................ 115
4.10 Principle of operation of a three-phase induction motor ................................................ 118
4.11 Synchronous speed of induction Motors......................................................................... 118
4.12 Slip in Induction Motor ................................................................................................... 121
4.13 Rotor e.m.f and Frequency.............................................................................................. 124
4.14 Rotor Impedance and current .......................................................................................... 127
4.15 Induction Motor losses and efficiency ............................................................................ 129
4.16 Torque equation For a induction Motor .......................................................................... 132
4.17 Relationship between, torque and rotor Power Factor .................................................... 137
4.18 Starting torque of three phase induction Motor .............................................................. 137
4.19 Starting torque of a squirrel cage rotor ........................................................................... 138
4.20 Starting torque of a slip ring motor (Phase wound Motor) ............................................. 138
4.21 Induction motor torque-speed characteristics ................................................................. 138
4.21 Speed torque characteristics of a three phase induction motors ..................................... 140
4.22 Squirrel cage induction motor characteristics ................................................................. 140
4.23 Wound rotor induction motor characteristics ............................................................... 141
4.24 Starting methods for induction motor ............................................................................. 141
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4.25 Three Phase Synchronous Motor .................................................................................... 143

4.26 The advantages of the wound rotor motor compared with the cage type ....................... 143
4.27 Construction of three phase Synchronous Motor............................................................ 143
Stator: Revolving Magnetic Field ....................................................................................... 143
4.28 Working of principle synchronous motor ....................................................................... 144
4.29 Main Features of Synchronous Motors ........................................................................... 144
4.30 Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor ................................................................... 145
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 146
5.0Transformers ...................................................................................................................... 146
5.1 Construction Of transformers ........................................................................................... 146
5.2 Categories of transformer basing on the construction ...................................................... 147
5.3 Elementary theory of ideal transformers........................................................................... 148
5.4 Transformer no-load phasor diagram................................................................................ 152
5.5 Equivalent circuit of a transformer ................................................................................... 155
5.6 Transformer regulation ..................................................................................................... 158
5.7 Transformer Regulation .................................................................................................... 160
5.8 Transformer losses and efficiency .................................................................................... 163
5.9 Methods of Reducing eddy currents ................................................................................. 163
5.10 Maximum efficiency of Transformer.............................................................................. 167
5.11 Transformer Test ............................................................................................................. 168
5.12 Types of Transformer Tests ............................................................................................ 168
5.13 Why Transformer rating is in KVA? .............................................................................. 177
5.14 Autotransformers ............................................................................................................ 178
5.15 Advantages of Auto-transformer compared to double wound transformer .................... 178
5.16 Types of Autotransformers ............................................................................................. 178
Reference .................................................................................................................................... 180
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I, Mr. Kifaru J. Malale, would like to thank God, my Almighty for giving me the power and
strength to prepare this Study guide. This study guide, is aimed for guiding students at NTA
Level 6 who pursue Diploma in Electrical & Electronics, on how to go through in order to cover
their syllabus for Electrical Power
Nevertheless, many thanks should go directly to all staff members (Both Academic and
Management Part), who truly, by one way or another advised me, in order to come up with a
good Study guide, that covers what is supposed under the syllabus
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Testing and Measurement
1.1 Wattmeters or Dynamometer
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power in watts of any given circuit.
The common instrument used to measure AC power is DYNAMOMETER wattmeter
It has been shown that, power in DC circuit is obtained by the following simple electrical
formula
P Current ( A) xVoltage(V )
P IV watt
But power in AC circuit, can be calculated by the following formula
P current ( A) xvoltage(V ) x cos
Where, phase angle, between, current and voltage
P IV cos
Structure of dynamometer wattmeter
Figure 1.1: Structure of Dynamometer

Wattmeter is a four terminal device that consists of a voltage and current measurement elements
The current coil, has low impedance, hence has a negligible voltage, while the voltage coil has
high impedance, hence it passes a negligible current
Current coil: responsible for measuring current
Voltage coil: Responsible for measuring voltage
AC power is given by
Power VoltagexCurrentx cos
Power VI cos
The wattmeter will display the average power, which is the product of the magnitude of the
voltmeter (V) and Ammeter (A) times the cosines of phase angle between the two (Voltage and
current)
1.2 Measuring power in single phase circuit using wattmeter
Figure bellows, shows a typical connection of a WATTMETER used for measuring Single phase
AC power supplied to a load
Figure 1.2: Wattmeter in single phase source

i.
ii.
A current coil , which is connected in series with the load ,it is like an Ammeter
A Voltage coil , which is connected in parallel with the load , it is like a voltmeter
Question: Electrical Power June 2014, Question 1 a)
1.3 Methods for measuring a 3 phase power with wattmeter

There are various methods which are used for measurement of a 3 phase power in a three
phase circuit basing on the numbers of wattmeter being used. We have the following
methods
a. Three wattmeters method
b. Two wattmeters methods
c. One wattmeters methods
a. measurement of a three phase power by three wattmeters
In this case, three wattmeters, each one connected to each of one phase line, it is clear
that each wattmeter will give reading, which correspond to power measured in a
single phase
Figure 1.3: Three wattmeter method

The resultant sum of all the readings of wattmeter will give the total power of the circuit.
Mathematically we can say that
PT P1 P2 P3
b. measurement of a three phase power by two wattmeters

In this method we have two types of connections
i.
Star connection Loads
When the star connected load, the diagram is shown in below-
Figure 1.4: Two wattmeter Method

By two wattmeters method, we can see that the total power delivered to the above system, can be
given by the sum of the individual power of each wattmeter
PT P1 P2
But , P1 I1 (V1 V3 ), P2 I 2 (V2 V3 )
PT I1 (V1 V3 ) I 2 (V2 V3 )
PT I1V1 I1V3 I 2V2 I 2V3
PT I1V1 I 2V2 V3 ( I1 I 2 )
But , I1 I 2 I 3 0, I1 I 2 I 3 , substitute above
PT I1V1 I 2V2 V3 ( I 3 )
PT I1V1 I 2V2 V3 I 3
ii.
For a delta connected Loads
When the Delta connected load, the diagram is shown in below
Figure 1.5: Two wattmeter method in Delta circuit

By two wattmeters method, we can see that the total power delivered to the above system, can be
given by the sum of the individual power of each wattmeter
PT P1 P2
But , P1 V3 ( I 3 I1 ), P2 V2 ( I 2 I1 )
PT V3 ( I 3 I1 ) V2 ( I 2 I1 )
PT V3 I 3 V3 I1 V2 I 2 V2 I1
PT V3 I 3 V2 I 2 V3 I1 V2 I1
PT V3 I 3 V2 I 2 I1 (V3 V2 )
But ,V1 V2 V3 0,V3 V2 V1 , substitute above
PT V3 I 3 V2 I 2 I1V1
1.4 Phase angle of three phase angle by 2-wattmeter

Consider the diagram below
Figure 1.6: Phase angle by 2 wattmeter method

In case of balanced 3 phase system, the power factor, can be proved as follows
Assuming the wattmeter W1 is lagging, and then we can say that , power displayed by the W1, is
given by
P1 VL I L cos30cos VL I L sin 30sin
Assuming also the wattmeter W2 is leading, then we can say that , the power displayed by the
W2, is given by
P2 VL I L cos(30 )
P2 VL I L cos 30cos VL I L sin 30sin
P1 VL I L cos(30 )
P1 VL I L cos 30 cos VL I L sin 30sin
P2 VL I L cos(30 )
P2 VL I L cos 30 cos VL I L sin 30sin
P1 P2 (VL I L cos 30 cos VL I L sin 30sin ) (VL I L cos 30 cos VL I L sin 30sin )
P1 P2 VL I L cos 30 cos VL I L sin 30sin VL I L cos 30 cos VL I L sin 30sin
P1 P2 2VL I L sin 30sin
P1 P2 VL I L sin ......................(i)
Again, proceed in the following manner
P1 P2 (VL I L cos 30 cos VL I L sin 30sin ) (VL I L cos 30 cos VL I L sin 30sin )
P1 P2 2VL I L cos 30 cos
P1 P2 3VL I L cos ..................(ii)
Then take equation (i)/(ii)
VL I L sin
P P
1 2
3VL I L cos P1 P2
P P
sin
1 2
3 cos P1 P2
tan P1 P2
P1 P2
3
tan 3
P1 P2
P1 P2
tan 1 3
P1 P2
P1 P2
1.5 Errors in Wattmeter reading due to connections

There are two possible ways of connecting the Wattmeters in the single phase AC circuit
In these two methods, neither of them measures the correct power dissipated by the load in the
circuit. A wattmeter is supposed to indicate the power consumed by the load, but its actual
reading is slightly higher due to extra power losses that occur inside its own coils. Therefore,
amount of errors introduced; depend much on the type of connection
1. Pressure coil/voltage coil on the supply side
In this method, voltage coil is connected to the supply side, the voltage applied to the
pressure coil/voltage coil is higher than that of the load
Figure 1.7: Voltage coil on the supply side
Now, from above circuit connection

Voltage across pressure coil of the wattmeter is Vl
But V1 is the phasor sum of Load Voltage V, and voltage across current Coil V (=Ir,
where r is the resistance of the current coil)
Hence, the total power reading of the wattmeter, for this type of connection, will be given
as
PT Vl I cos
But from this equation, we can say that, the total power PT displayed by the wattmeter
PT Power , in, the, load Power , in, the, current , coil
PT IV cos I 2 r
where
phase, difference, between,V , and , I , in, the, current , coil

r small , resis tan ce, of , the, coil
2. Pressure coil/voltage coil on the load side

In this method, voltage coil is connected to the load side. Now, the current coil CC
carries extra current taken by the pressure coil
Figure 1.8: Voltage coil on the load side

The current through a current coil (CC), I1 is the phasor sum of load current I, and current
through voltage coil (VC), I, the power reading indicated by the wattmeter is given by
PT VI1 cos
Where,
V load voltage
I1 current , in, the, current , coil
phase, angle, between, V & I1
But form the phasor diagram, we can see that

I1 cos I cos I '
but
PT VI1 cos V ( I cos I ')
PT VI cos VI ', but , I '
PT VI cos
V
R
V2
R
PT Power in load power in voltage coil circuit
1.6 Other sources of errors in the wattmeter

a) Inductance of both voltage or current coils
This causes phasing effect of the voltage coil
This phasing effect can be reduced by introducing, the high non inductive resistance R
connected in series with the voltage coil
Figure 1.9: Inductance of both voltage and current coils

b) Errors due to some voltage drop inside the wattmeter instrument that leads to a little
increase in extra power displayed in the output of the instrument
Total power displayed = Power consumed inside instrument + power consumed across
the load under measurement
c) Errors due to small current taken by a voltage coil
1.7 Specialized instrument for testing electrical installation

For all low voltage electrical installation verification and condition reporting work, electrical
contractors and installers should, as a minimum, have the following range of test instruments
Continuity test instrument
Where the installation can be safely isolated from the supply, then the circuit. Protective
conductors and equipotential bonding conductors can be disconnected from the main earthing
terminal in order to verify their continuity
Where the installation cannot be isolated from the supply, the circuit protective conductors and
the equipotential bonding conductors must not be disconnected from the main earthing terminal,
as under fault conditions extraneous metalwork could become live. Under these circumstances a
combination of inspection, continuity testing and earth loop impedance testing should establish
the integrity of the circuit protective conductors
When testing the effectiveness of the main bonding conductors or supplementary bonds, the
resistance value between any service pipe or extraneous metalwork and the main earthing
terminal should not exceed 0.05 ohms
Insulation resistance test instrument
This is a test that can be carried out in whole installation, or in a single circuit. The test is
necessary to find out if there is likely to be any leakage through the insulated part of installation.
A leakage could occur for various reasons. The voltage used in an insulation test of 230V ac is
500V which is more than double the voltage circuit
Cable insulation could deteriorate through aging of the cable. A low insulation resistance caused
by aging of the cable, is found where the rubber has been used as an insulator of the cable
Cables which are crushed by the floor boards, clipped on the edge or worn thin where pulled
through holes in joints next to other cable can give a very low reading when testing
The instrument used to test insulation is called an insulation resistance tester. To comply with the
requirements of safety and health executive, the instrument must be capable of delivering current
of 1mA when a voltage of 500V DC is applied to a resistance of 0.5M. the table below, gives
the test voltages and minimum acceptable resistance
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Circuit between 0V50V a.c

Required Test Voltage 250V DC
Minimum Acceptable 0.25M
Resistance
In 17th Edition of
0.5M
Wiring regulation
Circuit between 50V500V a.c

500V DC
0.5M
Circuit between
500V-1000Va.c
1000V DC
1M
1M
2M
For Domestic Installation, the testing should be done immediately from the day the Installation
commences
Testing the Whole Installation
In new Domestic Installation, it is advised to carry out the insulation resistance test of the whole
installation before connecting the supply in the house by adopting the following safe procedures
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Safe Isolation must be done before commencing the test

Inform the occupants of the building that, testing is to be done
Ensure that all protective devices are in place and they are switched ON
Remove all lamps from fittings, where accessible
If the lamps are not accessible, open the switch controlling those lamps
Note:
Great care must be taken as during this test, 500V DC will be passed through cable, any
electrical equipments which is left connected will be damaged
Loop impedance test instrument
This is used to test the earth fault loop impedance of the circuit
Earth fault loop impedance is the path followed by fault current when a low impedance
fault occurs between the phase conductor and earth, i.e. earth fault loop. Fault current is
driven round the loop by the supply voltage. The higher the impedance, the lower the fault
current will be and the longer it will take for the circuit protection to operate.
To make sure the protection operates fast enough; the loop impedance must be low. Every
circuit must be tested to make sure that the actual loop impedance does not exceed that
specified for the protective device concerned. It is recommended that the Ze test be done
first. This test, done at the distribution board, gives the loop impedance of the circuit,
excluding the installation.
The path followed by fault current as the result of a low impedance occurring between the
phase conductor and earthed metal is called the earth fault loop. Current is driven through the
loop impedance by the supply voltage.
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Figure 1.10: Complete earth loop path

Loop impedance test instrument, allows current of up to 25 A to flow around the earth fault
loop . It measure the current flow, and by doing so, can calculate the resistance of the earth
fault loop. The values given are given in ohm
The maximum value accepted for earth fault loop impedance depend on the type of electrical
circuit components used like circuit breakers
Residual current device test instrument (Residual current device Tester RCDs)
A residual-current device (RCD), or residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) is an

electrical wiring device that disconnects a circuit whenever it detects that the electric current
is not balanced between the energized (line) conductor(s) and the return (neutral) conductor.
In normal circumstances, these two wires are expected to carry matching currents, and any
difference usually indicates a short circuit or other electrical anomaly is present. Even a small
leakage current can mean a risk of harm or death due to electric shock if the leaking electric
current passes through a human being; a current of around 30 mA (0.030 Amps) is
potentially sufficient to cause cardiac arrest or serious harm if it persists for more than a
small fraction of a second
RCDs are usually testable and resettable devices. Commonly they include a button that when
pressed safely creates a small leakage condition, and a switch that reconnects the conductors
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when a fault condition has been cleared. Depending upon their design, some RCDs
disconnect both the energized and return conductors upon a fault, while others only
disconnect the energized conductor, and rely upon the return conductor being at ground
(earth) potential. The former are commonly known as "double pole" designs; the latter as
"single pole" designs. If the fault has left the return wire "floating", or not at its expected
ground potential for any reason, then a single pole RCD model will leave this conductor still
connected to the circuit when it detects the fault.
1.8 Earth electrode resistance
Earthing of electrical systems is essential for the correct functioning and the protecting of life
and equipment in the event of faults. The earth electrode (connection of the earthing system to
the ground) is an essential part of any system.
The estimation of electrode resistance and functioning during the design stage ensures workable
solutions are proposed, enhances the operation and potentially reduces the cost of any
installation.
The earth Electrode resistance should always be as low as possible in order to provide a good
protection of equipment in the event of electric faults
1.9 Measuring Earth electrode resistance
The approximate resistance R of the electrode in ohms:
where L = length of conductor in meters
= resistivity of the soil in ohm-meters (see Influence of the type of soil )
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Transmission and Distribution of electric Power
2.1 Electric Power transmission
Is a process in the delivery of electricity to consumers and also the bulk transfer of electric
power. Electric power can be transmitted through overhead power cables or power line,
supported over high towers
Power lines are overhead wires supported by high towers that transmit electric energy from
power supplies or plants. The centre strands of power lines are made of steel to give them
strength and the outer strands are made of aluminum because of its lightness and ability to carry
current. The wires are insulated from the towers by porcelain insulators to prevent the loss of
electric energy
A.C. power transmission is the distribution of power using alternating current.
Generation
Electricity is produced, or generated, by the turning of turbines. In most power plants, these
turbines are turned by pressurized steam. The steam is created by the burning of coal or other
fossil fuels in massive boilers. In the case of hydroelectricity, the force of rushing water turns the
turbines.
Transmission
once the turbines generate the electricity, its voltage is significantly increased by passing it
through step-up transformers. Then the electricity is routed onto a network of high-voltage
transmission lines capable of efficiently transporting electricity over long distances.
Distribution
At the electric distribution substation that serves your home, the electricity is removed from the
transmission system and passed through step-down transformers that lower the voltage. The
electricity is then transferred onto your local electric co-op's network of distribution lines and
delivered to your home. There, the electricity's voltage is lowered again by a distribution
transformer and passed through your electric meter into your home's network of electric wires
and outlets.
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2.2 Advantages of using AC power in Transmission

A.C. voltages have the advantage of increasing and decreasing in value more readily than that of
the (D.C).
Transmission efficiency is improved by increasing the voltage using a step up transformer which
reduces the current in the conductors while keeping the power transmitted nearly equal to the
power input. The reduced current flowing through the conductor reduces the losses in the
conductor
In alternating current systems, energy loss across power lines is reduced because transformers
make it possible to raise the A.C. voltage to very high values. These high voltages allow the
same level of electric power made available at a lower current. This results in less power loss,
smaller transmission cables and higher efficiency. In addition to stepping up or raise the voltage
for long distance transmission, transformers also step-down or lower the voltage to the
requirements of the load
2.3 Electric Distribution Plant
Refers to that all part of electric power system between the bulk power sources and consumers
services switches.
The distribution plant occupies an important place in any electric power system. Briefly,
its function is to take electric power from the bulk power source or sources and distribute
or deliver it to the consumers
It can be divided into two main parts.
Transmission System
Distribution System
Furthermore, AC power supply Network, can be divided into five elements, as shown
below
1. Generating Station
2. Primary transmission
3. Secondary transmission
4. Primary Distribution
5. Secondary Distribution
Following is detail of the above sections
i. Generating Station:
The place where electric power produced by parallel connected three phase
alternators/generators is called Generating Station. The Ordinary generating voltage may be
11kV, 11.5 kV 12kV or 13kV. But economically, it is good to step up the produced voltage
from (11kV, 11.5kV Or 12 kV) to 132kV, 220kV or 500kV or greater (in some countries,
up to 1500kV) by Step up transformer (power Transformer).
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ii.
iii.
iv.
Primary Transmission:
The electric supply (in 132kV, 220 kV, 500kV or greater, depending on the country) is
transmitted to load center by three phase wire overhead transmission system.
Load Centre: refers to that part of the city where consumers with large electrical power
requirements can be found
Secondary transmission:
Area far from city which has connected with receiving station by line is called Secondary
transmission. At receiving station, the level of voltage reduced by step-down transformers
up to 132kV, 66 or 33 kV, and Electric power is transmitted by three phase three wire
overhead system to different sub stations. So this is a Secondary Transmission.
Primary Distribution:
At a substation, the level of secondary transmission voltage (132kV, 66 or 33 kV) reduced
to 11kV by step down transforms.
generally, electric supply is given to those heavy consumer which demands is 11 kV, from
these lines which carries 11 kV ( in three phase three wire overhead system) and they make
a separate substation to control and utilize this power. Consider the following diagram
Figure 2.1: Big consumers (factories), connected to Electrical power supply system
in other cases, for heavier consumer (at large scale) their demand is about 132 kV or 33
kV. they take electric supply from secondary transmission or primary distribution ( in 132
kV, 66kV or 33kV) and then step down the level of voltage by step-down transformers in
their own substation for utilization ( i.e. for electric traction etc).
v.
Secondary Distribution:
Electric power is given by (from Primary distribution line i.e.11kV) to distribution
substation. This substation is located near by consumers areas where the level of voltage
reduced by step down transformers to 440V.
These transformers called Distribution transformers, three phase four wire system). So there
is 400 Volts (Three Phase Supply System) between any two phases and 230 Volts (Single
Phase Supply) between a neutral and phase (live) wires. Residential load (i.e. Fans, Lights,
and TV etc.) may be connected between any one phase and neutral wires, while three phase
load may be connected directly to the three phase lines.
16
To understand this explanation, consider the diagram below that shows how domestic house and
three phase load are connected directly through secondary distribution
Figure 2.2 : Domestic Houses connected to AC power
SINGLE LINE PHASE DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL THREE PHASE POWER SYSTEM

FROM GENERATOR TO CONSUMERS
Figure 2.3: Single line phase diagram of 3 phase power from generation to consumer
17
2.4 Types of Electrical power Distribution System

a) Radial Electrical power distribution
In this system, separate feeders radiate from single substation and feed the single
distributors at one end only. Figure below, shows a single line diagram of a radial system
for ac distribution. The radial system is employed only when power is generated at low
voltage, and substation is located at the centre of the load
Figure 2.4 Radial Electrical Power Distributions

This is a simplest distribution circuit and has lowest initial cost, however it suffers from
the following drawbacks
2.5 Disadvantages of radial electrical power distribution
i.
The end of the distributors, nearest to the feeding point (feeder) will be heavily
loaded
ii.
The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and a single distributor.
Therefore any faults on the feeder or distributors, cuts off the supply to the
consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the substation
iii. The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to a serious
voltage fluctuations, when the load on the distributor changes
b) Closed Ring Electrical Power supply distribution
In this system, the primaries of the distribution transformers form a loop. This loop
circuit starts from the substation bus bars (feeder), makes the loop throughout the area to
be served and returns to the substation. Consider the diagram below
Figure 2.5: Closed Ring Electrical Power Supply distribution

18
Figure above, shows a single line diagram of a closed Ring distribution system,, where a
substation supplies through a closed feeder LMNOPQRS. The distributors, are tapped
from different points M,O and Q of the feeder through distribution transformers
2.6 Advantages of a closed Ring Distribution System
i.
There are less voltage fluctuation at consumers terminals
ii.
The system is very reliable, as each distributor is fed via two feeders. In the event
of faults on any section of the feeder , the continuity of supply will be maintained
c) Open Ring Electrical power distribution system
It provides the isolating switch or circuit breakers (Normally opened ), as a link for AC
supply
To provide high electrical power supply reliability, two substations are used, and this
substation will be fed from two sources. The customers substation is normally supplied
from a single end , in case of loss of supply from the one source end , for example due to
component failures, the normally opened point can be closed to restore supply after the
faulty portion of the component is isolated
2.7 Importance of Transformer in transmission of power
Transmission efficiency is improved by increasing the voltage using a step up transformer which
reduces the current in the conductors while keeping the power transmitted nearly equal to the
power input. The reduced current flowing through the conductor reduces the losses in the
conductor
In alternating current systems, energy loss across power lines is reduced because transformers
make it possible to raise the A.C. voltage to very high values. These high voltages allow the
same level of electric power made available at a lower current. This results in less power loss,
smaller transmission cables and higher efficiency. In addition to stepping up or raise the voltage
for long distance transmission
2.8 Importance of Transformer in Distribution of electrical power
Transformers are very important in distribution network, because their function is to step down
voltage from higher transmission voltage to lower levels so that it can be used by the end
consumers
These transformers are commonly known as DISTRIBUTION TRANSFOMERS, consider the
diagram below, where the transformers, step down voltage form 11KV to 400V/240V suitable to
be used by the end consumers
19
Figure 2.6: Distribution Transformer

2.9 Three Phase AC Power Systems
In three phase systems, they can further be categorized in two groups
a) Three wires, three phase systems (3 wires, three phase systems)
If large amount power, to be transmitted and the demand is constant on all phases, three
phase three wire system would be more preferable and economical, hence generally in
transmission of high power (HV AC),it is used and fed to delta connected primary to step
down.
Figure 2.7: Three wires-three phase AC systems

b) Four wires, three phase systems (4 wires, three phase systems)
Generally on power distribution side three phase four wire system is more preferable, yet
if the load is industrial loading (balanced mainly by induction motor/furnace etc.) three
phase three wire is used. In three phase four wire system, with domestic unbalanced load,
as unbalanced current get path through neutral, the phase/line voltage applied to
appliances remains as per requirement, and hence the better performance is obtained
20
Figure 2.8: Four wires-three phase AC systems

2.10 Electrical power Distribution Switch Gear
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnects switches,
fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. to maintain the
security levels at all distribution units and sub stations, it is critical to install safety devices and
mechanisms. While there are many mechanisms that help in safeguarding electrical connections
at residential and industrial areas, switchgear is one of the most popular ones due to its various
functions and features.
2.11 Types of Switch gear
Oil Switch
This is a switch, Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled
Circuit breakers
In switchgear systems power circuit breakers can be used, these breakers allow for high
voltages to be utilized, as well as enabling breakers and other parts to be withdrawn or replaced
while the system is still live.
Electrical isolators/ Disconnectors
Isolator is a mechanical switch which isolates a part of circuit from system as when required.
Electrical isolators separate a part of the system from rest for safe maintenance works. Circuit
breaker always trip the circuit but open contacts of breaker cannot be visible physically from
outside of the breaker and that is why it is recommended not to touch any electrical circuit just
by switching off the circuit breaker. So for better safety there must be some arrangement so that
one can see open condition of the section of the circuit before touching it
21
Switch fuse/ Fuse Cutout
In electrical distribution, a fuse cutout or cut-out fuse is a combination of a fuse and a switch,
used in primary overhead feeder lines and taps to protect distribution transformers from current
surges and overloads. An overcurrent caused by a fault in the transformer or customer circuit will
cause the fuse to melt, disconnecting the transformer from the line. It can also be opened
manually by utility linemen standing on the ground and using a long insulating stick called a "hot
stick".
2.12 What is An Arc?
During opening of current carrying contacts in a circuit breaker the medium in between opening
contacts become highly ionized through which the interrupting current gets low resistive path
and continues to flow through this path even the contacts are physically separated. During the
flowing of current from one contact to other the path becomes so heated that it glows. This is
called arc.
2.13 Arc in Circuit Breakers
Whenever, on load current contacts of circuit breaker open there is an arc in circuit breaker,
established between the separating contacts. As long as this arc is sustained in between the
contacts the current through the circuit breaker will not be interrupted finally as because arc is
itself a conductive path of electricity. For total interruption of current the circuit breaker it is
essential to quench the arc as quick as possible. The main designing criteria of a circuit breaker is
to provide appropriate technology of arc quenching in circuit breaker to fulfill quick and safe
current interruption.
2.14 Methods of Arc Control in circuit breakers
Arc in a circuit breakers can be controlled or extinguished by two main ways
Oil Circuit Breaker
Mineral oil has better insulating property than air. In oil circuit breaker the fixed contact and
moving contact are immerged inside the insulating oil. Whenever there is a separation of current
carrying contacts in the oil, the arc in circuit breaker is initialized at the moment of separation of
contacts, and due to this arc the oil is vaporized and decomposed in mostly hydrogen gas and
ultimately creates a hydrogen bubble around the arc. This highly compressed gas bubble around
the arc prevents re-striking of the arc after current reaches zero crossing of the cycle. The oil
circuit breaker is the one of the oldest type of circuit breakers.
Air circuit breakers
This type of circuit breakers, is those kind of circuit breaker which operates in air at atmospheric
pressure. After development of oil circuit breaker, the medium voltage air circuit breaker (ACB)
is replaced completely by oil circuit breaker in different countries. But in countries like France
and Italy, ACBs are still preferable choice up to voltage 15 KV.
22
Working Principle of Air Circuit Breaker

The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any other types of circuit
breakers. The main aim of all kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing
after current zero by creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the system
recovery voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same but in different manner. For
interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage in excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as
the minimum voltage required maintaining the arc. This circuit breaker increases the arc voltage
by mainly three different ways,
1. It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc
plasma is decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced, hence more
voltage gradient is required to maintain the arc.
2. It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is
increased, the resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc
current more voltage is required to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage
is increased.
3. Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.
The first objective is usually achieved by forcing the arc into contact with as large an area as
possible of insulating material. Every air circuit breaker is fitted with a chamber surrounding the
contact. This chamber is called 'arc chute'. The arc is driven into it. If inside of the arc chute is
suitably shaped, and if the arc can be made conform to the shape, the arc chute wall will help to
achieve cooling. This type of arc chute should be made from some kind of refractory material.
High temperature plastics reinforced with glass fiber and ceramics are preferable materials for
making arc chute.
The second objective that is lengthening the arc path, is achieved concurrently with fist
objective. If the inner walls of the arc chute is shaped in such a way that the arc is not only
forced into close proximity with it but also driven into a serpentine channel projected on the arc
chute wall. The lengthening of the arc path increases the arc resistance.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
A vacuum circuit breaker is such kind of circuit breaker where the arc quenching takes place in
vacuum. The technology is suitable for mainly medium voltage application. For higher voltage
vacuum technology has been developed but not commercially viable. The operation of opening
and closing of current carrying contacts and associated arc interruption take place in a vacuum
chamber in the breaker which is called vacuum interrupter. The vacuum interrupter consists of a
steel arc chamber in the centre symmetrically arranged ceramic insulators. The vacuum pressure
inside a vacuum interrupter is normally maintained at 10 - 6 bar.
The main aim of any circuit breaker is to quench arc during current zero crossing, by establishing
high dielectric strength in between the contacts so that reestablishment of arc after current zero
23
becomes impossible. The dielectric strength of vacuum is eight times greater than that of air and
four times greater than that of SF6 gas.
This high dielectric strength makes it possible to quench a vacuum arc within very small contact
gap. For short contact gap, low contact mass and no compression of medium the drive energy
required in vacuum circuit breaker is minimum. When two face to face contact areas are just
being separated to each other, they do not be separated instantly, contact area on the contact face
is being reduced and ultimately comes to a point and then they are finally de-touched. Although
this happens in a fraction of micro second but it is the fact.
At this instant of de-touching of contacts in a vacuum, the current through the contacts
concentrated on that last contact point on the contact surface and makes a hot spot. As it is
vacuum, the metal on the contact surface is easily vaporized due to that hot spot and create a
conducting media for arc path. Then the arc will be initiated and continued until the next current
zero.
2.15 Fuse Advantages and disadvantages in electrical circuit
Fuse is the cheapest protection device in electrical circuit against short circuits and overloading
of circuits. Fuse is a metal wire or thin metal strip which has the property of low melting point
which is inserted into the electrical circuit as protective device.
Fuse provides protection against excessive currents which can flow in circuit during short
circuits. Under normal working condition the current flowing through the circuit is within safe
limits but when fault occurs such as short circuit occurs or when loads more than circuit capacity
is connected to it, current exceeds the limiting value results in fuse wire gets heated up, melts
and break the current. Thus fuse protects the machine or
2.16 Fuse advantages
Fuse is cheapest type of protection in an electrical circuit

Fuse needs zero maintenance
Operation of fuse is simple and no complexity is involved
Fuse has the ability to interrupt enormous short circuit current without producing noise,
flame, gas or smoke
The operation time of fuse can be made much smaller than operation of circuit breaker. It
is the primary protection device against short circuits
It affords current limiting effect under short-circuit conditions
Fuse inverse time current characteristic has the ability to use for over-load protection
24
2.17 Fuse Disadvantages
During short circuit or overload once fuse blows off replacing of fuse takes time. During
this period the circuit lost power
When fuses are connected in series it is difficult to discriminate the fuse unless the fuse
has significant size difference
2.18 Fusing factor

Fusing factor is ratio of minimum fusing current to the current rating of the fuse element.
Fusing Factor = minimum fusing current / current rating of fuse
2.19 Limitations of a Fuse
Advantage of fuse based protection is its simplicity and cheapness. However, with fuses it is
difficult to control the time to trip. This creates difficulty in primary-backup coordination
activity. Also, once a fuse melts, unless it is replaced, the equipment cannot be energized again.
Thus, it is not possible to have remote operation. This motivates development of an overcurrent
relay
2.19 Relays
A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical circuit and closes
its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil circuit hence
make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the electrical circuit from
rest of the healthy circuit.
In Electromagnetic relays operating current flows through the coil. When this operating current
increases, coil energizes the electromagnet. When the operating current becomes large, the
magnetic field produced by electromagnet is high such that this magnetic field pulls the armature
or plunger making the trip circuit contacts to close. Some of the advantages, disadvantages and
applications of electromagnetic relays are explained below
25
2.21 Operation Of A relay

Figure 2.9: Relay system

All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC current. When
the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the armature, which
operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts. When a power is
supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch mechanism. The
magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to another. The first circuit is
called the control circuit; the second is called the load circuit.
2.22 Advantages of relays
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching large current >5A
Relays can switch many contacts at once
2.23 Disadvantages of relays
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per
second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many ICs can provide so a low power transistor may be
needed to switch the current for the relay's coil
26
2.24 Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) protection relays

Under Electrical Protection In this type of relays, the time of operation depends upon the
magnitude of actuating quantity. If the magnitude of actuating quantity is very high, the relay
operation is very fast. In other words, the relay operating time that is time delay in the relay is
inversely proportional to the magnitude of actuating quantity. The general characteristics of an
inverse time relay are shown in figure below.
Figure 2.10: IDMT protection relay

Here, in the graph it is clear that, when, actuating quantity is OA, the operating time of the relay
is OA', when actuating quantity is OB, the relay operating time is OB' and when actuating
quantity is OC, the relay operating quantity is OC'.
In the graph above, it is also observed that, when actuating quantity is less than OA, the relay
operating time becomes infinity that means for actuating quantity less than OA, the relay does
not at all actuate. This minimum value of actuating quantity for which a relay initiates its
operation is known as pick up value of actuating quantity. Here it is denoted as OA.
It is also seen from the graph that, when actuating quantity approaches to infinity along x axis the
operating time does not approach to zero. The curve approaches to an approximately constant
operating time. This is approximately minimum time required to operate the relay.
The inverse time relay, where the actuating quantity is current, is known as inverse current relay.
In this type of relay, the inverse time is achieved by attaching some mechanical accessories in
the relay.
Inverse time delay is achieved in induction disc relay by providing a permanent magnet in such a
way, that, when disc rotates, it cuts the flux of permanent magnet. Due to this, current is induced
27
in the disc which slows down the movement of the disc. A solenoid relay can be made inverse
time relay, by providing a piston and a oil dash-pot. A piston, attached to the moving iron
plunger, is immersed in oil in a dash-pot. When the solenoid relay is actuated, the piston moves
upwards along with iron plunger.
Viscosity of oil slows the upward movement of plunger. The speed of this upward movement
against gravity also depends upon how strongly the solenoid attracts the iron plunger. This
attraction force of the solenoid depends upon the magnitude of actuating current. Hence, time of
operation of relay is inversely proportional to actuating current.
2.25 Power factor
Power factor, may be defined as the cosine of a phase angle between current and voltage
represented on a phasor diagram.
Power factor = cos
If the circuit is inductive in nature, the current lags behind the applied voltage and the power
factor is referred to as lagging. Consider the phasor diagram below
Figure 2.11: Phasor diagram of an Inductive device

The components I cos is known as wattful component or active component, where the
component I sin is called, wattless or reactive component
Active component is the measure of power factor
However, in a capacitive circuit, current leads the voltage, and the power factor is said to be
leading
Most of loads used in industries such as , induction motors, arc lamps, transformer , are inductive
in nature, and hence have low lagging power factor. The low lagging power factor is highly
undesirable as it cause many disadvantages on the system. Current I is inversely proportional
to Cos i.e. Power Factor. In other words, When Power Factor increases, Current Decreases,
and when Power Factor decreases, Current Increases.
28
2.26 Power Triangle

The analysis of power factor can also be made in terms of power drawn by the AC circuit. If
each side of the previous triangle, is multiplied by voltage V, then we obtain power triangle
AOB, shown below
Figure 2.12: Power triangle
The following points may be noted in the power triangle
The apparent power in an AC circuit has two components, active and reactive power at
right angle to each other
29
Now, In case of Low Power Factor, Current will be increased, and this high current will cause to
the following disadvantages.
2.27 Disadvantages of low power factor in the system
1.) Large Line Losses (Copper Losses):
We know that Line Losses is directly proportional to the squire of Current I2
Power Loss = I2xR i.e., the larger the current, the greater the line losses i.e. I>>Line Losses
In other words,
Power Loss = I2xR = 1/Cos2 .. Refer to Equation I 1/Cos. (1)
Thus, if Power factor = 0.8, then losses on this power factor =1/Cos2 = 1/ 0.82 = 1.56 times will
be greater than losses on Unity power factor.
2.) Large kVA rating and Size of Electrical Equipments:
As we know that almost all Electrical Machinery (Transformer, Alternator, Switchgears etc)
rated in kVA. But, it is clear from the following formula that Power factor is inversely
proportional to the kVA i.e.
Cos = kW / kVA
Therefore, The Lower the Power factor, the larger the kVA rating of Machines also, the larger
the kVA rating of Machines, The larger the Size of Machines and The Larger the size of
Machines, The Larger the Cost of machines.
3.) Greater Conductor Size and Cost:
In case of low power factor, current will be increased, thus, to transmit this high current, we need
the larger size of conductor. Also, the cost of large size of conductor will be increased.
4.) Poor Voltage Regulation and Large Voltage Drop:
Voltage Drop = V = IZ.
Now in case of Low Power factor, Current will be increased. So the Larger the current, the
Larger the Voltage Drop.
Also Voltage Regulation = V.R = (VNo Load VFull Load)/ VFull Load
In case of Low Power Factor (lagging Power factor) there would be large voltage drop which
cause low voltage regulation. Therefore, keeping Voltage drop in the particular limit, we need to
install Extra regulation equipment i.e. Voltage regulators.
30
5.) Low Efficiency:

In case of low Power Factor, there would be large voltage drop and large line losses and this will
cause the system or equipment efficiency too low. For instant, due to low power factor, there
would be large line losses; therefore, alternator needs high excitation, thus, generation efficiency
would be low.
6.) Penalty from Electric Power Supply Company on Low Power factor
Electrical Power supply Company imposes a penalty of power factor below 0.95 lagging in
Electric power bill. So you must improve Pf above 0.95.
2.28 Causes of low Power Factor
Low power factor is undesirable form economic point of view. Normally the power factor of the
whole load on the supply system is lower than 0.8. The following are the causes of low power
factor
i.
ii.
iii.
Most of the AC motor are of induction type (single phase or three phase), which have a
low lagging power factor. These motors works at extremely low power factor on light
load (0.2 to 0.3) and rises to 0.8 to 0.9 at full load
Arc lamp, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operates at low
lagging power factor\
The load on the power system is varying, being high during morning and evening and
low at other times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased, which increases
the magnetizing current. This result in decreasing power factor
31
2.29 Methods for power factor improvement

The following devices and equipments are used for Power Factor Improvement.
1. Static Capacitor
We know that most of the industries and power system loads are inductive that take
lagging current which decrease the system power factor (See Disadvantages of Low
Power factor) . For Power factor improvement purpose, Static capacitors are connected in
parallel with those devices which work on low power factor.
Figure 2.13: Static capacitor

These static capacitors provide leading current which neutralize (totally or approximately) the
lagging inductive component of load current (i.e. leading component neutralize or eliminate the
lagging component of load current) thus power factor of the load circuit is improved. These
capacitors are installed in Vicinity of large inductive load e.g Induction motors and transformers
etc, and improve the load circuit power factor to improve the system or devises efficiency.
n above, a Capacitor (C) has been connected in parallel with load. Now a current (Ic) is flowing
through Capacitor which lead 90 from the supply voltage ( Note that Capacitor provides leading
Current i.e., In a pure capacitive circuit, Current leading 90 from the supply Voltage, in other
words, Voltage are 90 lagging from Current). The load current is (I). The Vectors combination
of (I) and (Ic) is (I) which is lagging from voltage at 2 as shown in fig above.
It can be seen from fig above that angle of 2 < 1 i.e. angle of 2 is less than from angle of 2.
Therefore Cos2 is less than from Cos1 (Cos2> Cos1). Hence the load power factor is
improved by capacitor.
Also note that after the power factor improvement, the circuit current would be less than from
the low power factor circuit current. Also, before and after the power factor improvement, the
active component of current would be same in that circuit because capacitor eliminates only the
re-active component of current. Also, the Active power (in Watts) would be same after and
before power factor improvement.
32
Advantages:
Capacitor bank offers several advantages over other methods of power factor
improvement.
Losses are low in static capacitors
There is no moving part, therefore need low maintenance
It can work in normal air conditions (i.e. ordinary atmospheric conditions)
Do not require a foundation for installation
They are lightweight so it is can be easy to installed
Disadvantages:
The age of static capacitor bank is less (8 10 years)

With changing load, we have to ON or OFF the capacitor bank, which causes switching
surges on the system
If the rated voltage increases, then it causes damage it
Once the capacitors spoiled, then repairing is costly
2. Synchronous Condenser
When a Synchronous motor operates at No-Load and over-exited then its called a
synchronous Condenser. Whenever a Synchronous motor is over-exited then it provides
leading current and works like a capacitor. When a synchronous condenser is connected
across supply voltage (in parallel) then it draws leading current and partially eliminates
the re-active component and this way, power factor is improved. Generally, synchronous
condenser is used to improve the power factor in large industries.
Figure 2.14 : Improving power factor synchronous condenser
33
Advantages:
Long life (almost 25 years)

High Reliability
Step-less adjustment of power factor.
No generation of harmonics of maintenance
The faults can be removed easily
Its not affected by harmonics.
Require Low maintenance (only periodic bearing greasing is necessary)

Disadvantages:
It is expensive (maintenance cost is also high) and therefore mostly used by large power
users.
An auxiliary device has to be used for this operation because synchronous motor has no
self-starting torque
It produces noise
3. Phase Advancer
Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the motor and
operates with the motors rotor circuit for power factor improvement. Phase advancer is used to
improve the power factor of induction motor in industries. As the stator windings of induction
motor takes lagging current 90 out of phase with Voltage, therefore the power factor of
induction motor is low. If the exciting ampere-turns are excited by external AC source, then
there would be no effect of exciting current on stator windings. Therefore the power factor of
induction motor will be improved. This process is done by Phase advancer.
Advantages:
Lagging kVAR (Reactive component of Power or reactive power) drawn by the motor is
sufficiently reduced because the exciting ampere turns are supplied at slip frequency (fs).
The phase advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is
Unacceptable
Disadvantage:
Using Phase advancer is not economical for motors below 200 H.P. (about 150kW)
34
2.30 Calculating KVAR ratings and Capacitance

Consider the following Examples.
Example: 1
A 3 Phase, 5 kW Induction Motor has a P.F (Power factor) of 0.75 lagging. What size of
Capacitor in kVAR is required to improve the P.F (Power Factor) to 0.90?
Solution #1 (By Simple Table Method)
Motor Input = 5kW
From Table, Multiplier to improve PF from 0.75 to 0.90 is .398
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.75 to 0.90
Required Capacitor kVAR = kW x Table 1 Multiplier of 0.75 and 0.90
= 5kW x .398
= 1.99 kVAR
And Rating of Capacitors connected in each Phase
1.99/3 = 0.663 kVAR
Solution # 2 (Classical Calculation Method)
Motor input = P = 5 kW
Original P.F = Cos1 = 0.75
Final P.F = Cos2 = 0.90
1 = Cos-1 = (0.75) = 41.41; Tan 1 = Tan (41.41) = 0.8819
2 = Cos-1 = (0.90) = 25.84; Tan 2 = Tan (25.50) = 0.4843
Required Capacitor kVAR = P (Tan 1 Tan 2)
= 5kW (0.8819 0.4843)
= 1.99 kVAR
And Rating of Capacitors connected in each Phase
1.99/3 = 0.663 kVAR
2.31 Tables (Capacitor sizing in kVAr and Farads for PF correction)
The following tables have been prepared to simplify kVAR calculation for power factor
improvement. The size of capacitor in kVAR is the kW multiplied by factor in table to improve
from existing power factor to proposed power factor. Check the others Examples below.
35
36
37
Example 2:
An Alternator is supplying a load of 650 kW at a P.F (Power factor) of 0.65. What size of
Capacitor in kVAR is required to raise the P.F (Power Factor) to unity (1)? And how many
more kW can the alternator supply for the same kVA loading when P.F improved.
Supplying kW = 650 kW
From Table 1, Multiplier to improve PF from 0.65 to unity (1) is 1.169
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.65 to unity (1)
Required Capacitor kVAR = kW x Table 1 Multiplier of 65 and 100
= 650kW x 1.169
= 759.85 kVAR
We know that P.F = Cos = kW/kVA . . .or
kVA = kW / Cos
= 650/0.65 = 1000 kVA
When Power Factor is raised to unity (1)
No of kW = kVA x Cos
= 1000 x 1 = 1000kW
Hence increased Power supplied by Alternator
1000kW 650kW = 350kW
Supplying kW = 650 kW
Original P.F = Cos1 = 0.65
Final P.F = Cos2 = 1
1 = Cos-1 = (0.65) = 49.45; Tan 1 = Tan (41.24) = 1.169
2 = Cos-1 = (1) = 0; Tan 2 = Tan (0) = 0
= 650kW (1.169 0)
= 759.85 kVAR
38
2.32 Converting Farads into KVAR and vice-versa

Example: 3
A Single phase 400V, 50Hz, motor takes a supply current of 50A at a P.F (Power factor) of 0.6.
The motor power factor has to be improved to 0.9 by connecting a capacitor in parallel with it.
Calculate the required capacity of Capacitor in both kVAR and Farads.
Solution.:
(1) To find the required capacity of Capacitance in kVAR to improve P.F from 0.6 to 0.9
(Two Methods)
Motor Input = P = V x I x Cos
= 400V x 50A x 0.6
= 12kW
From Table, Multiplier to improve PF from 0.60 to 0.90 is 0.849
Required Capacitor kVAR = kW x Table Multiplier of 0.60 and 0.90
= 12kW x 0.849
= 10.188 kVAR
Motor Input = P = V x I x Cos
= 400V x 50A x 0.6
= 12kW
Actual P.F = Cos1 = 0..6
Required P.F = Cos2 = 0.90
1 = Cos-1 = (0.60) = 53.13; Tan 1 = Tan (53.13) = 1.3333
2 = Cos-1 = (0.90) = 25.84; Tan 2 = Tan (25.50) = 0.4843
= 5kW (1.3333 0.4843)
= 10.188 kVAR
39
(2) To find the required capacity of Capacitance in Farads to improve P.F from 0.6 to 0.9
(Two Methods)
Solution #1 (Using a Simple Formula)
We have already calculated the required Capacity of Capacitor in kVAR, so we can easily
convert it into Farads by using this simple formula
Required Capacity of Capacitor in Farads/Microfarads
C = kVAR / (2 f V2) in microfarad
Putting the Values in the above formula
= (10.188kVAR) / (2 x x 50 x 4002)
= 2.0268 x 10-4
= 202.7 x 10-6
= 202.7F
Solution # 2 (Simple Calculation Method)
kVAR = 10.188 (i)
We know that;
IC = V/ XC
Whereas XC = 1 / 2 F C
IC = V / (1 / 2 F C)
IC = V 2 F C
= (400) x 2 x (50) x C
IC = 125663.7 x C
And,
kVAR = (V x IC) / 1000 [kVAR =( V x I)/ 1000 ]
= 400 x 125663.7 x C
IC = 50265.48 x C (ii)
Equating Equation (i) & (ii), we get,
50265.48 x C = 10.188C
C = 10.188 / 50265.48
C = 2.0268 x 10-4
C = 202.7 x 10-6
C = 202.7F
40
Example 4
What value of Capacitance must be connected in parallel with a load drawing 1kW at 70%
lagging power factor from a 208V, 60Hz Source in order to raise the overall power factor
to 91%.
Solution:
You can use either Table method or Simple Calculation method to find the required value of
Capacitance in Farads or kVAR to improve Power factor from 0.71 to 0.97. So I used table
method in this case.
P = 1000W
Actual Power factor = Cos1 = 0.71
Desired Power factor = Cos2 = 0.97
From Table, Multiplier to improve PF from 0.71 to 0.97 is 0.783
Required Capacitor kVAR = kW x Table Multiplier of 0.71 and 0.97
= 1kW x 0.783
=783 VAR (required Capacitance Value in kVAR)
Current in the Capacitor =
IC = QC / V
= 783 / 208
= 3.76A
And
XC = V / IC
= 208 / 3.76 = 55.25
C = 1/ (2 f XC)
C = 1 (2 x 60 x 55.25)
C = 48 F (required Capacitance Value in Farads)
Good to Know:
Important formulas which is used for Power factor improvement calculation as well as
used in the above calculation
Power in Watts
kW = kVA x Cos
kW = HP x 0.746 or (HP x 0.746) / Efficiency (HP = Motor Power)
kW = ( kVA2 kVAR2)
kW = P = VI Cos (Single Phase)
kW = P =3x V x I Cos (Three Phase)
Apparent Power in VA
kVA= (kW2+ kVAR2)
kVA = kW/ Cos
41
Reactive Power in VA
kVAR= (kVA2 kW2)
kVAR = C x (2 f V2)
Power factor (from 0.1 to 1)
Power Factor = Cos = P / V I (Single Phase)
Power Factor = Cos = P / (3x V x I) (Three Phase)
Power Factor = Cos = kW / kVA (Both Single Phase & Three Phase)
Power Factor = Cos = R/Z (Resistance / Impedance)
XC = 1/ (2 f C) (XC = Capacitive reactance)
IC = V/ XC (I = V / R)
Required Capacity of Capacitor in Farads/Microfarads
C = kVAR / (2 f V2) in microfarad
Required Capacity of Capacitor in kVAR
kVAR = C x (2 f V2)
42
2.33 Factors affecting the choice of power cable

The electrical power distribution networks for industrial systems, normally rely on cable feeders
to distribute the necessary power to the various industrial processes. Some overheads are used
but this normally only for the longer length and higher voltage circuits.
The distance involved, and the general configuration of the plant set the method of installation of
the cable that can be used. Cables can either be installed in cable trays, in concrete or metallic
ducts or can be buried directly in the soil
The main factors that influence the selection of the cable to be employed in any applications are
the cable sizes, whether single or three core cables. The type and size of the cables are selected
basing on four main criteria.
The maximum loading of the feeder
This refers to the maximum voltage rate designed on the specific cable; this also can be
influenced by the type of a cable and the method of installation and the ambient temperature
In any particular industrial system, it is convenient to use small number of different cable
sizes possible to ease installation and reduce spare holding
Maximum voltage drop that can be allowed
Conductor size also influences cable impedance and hence the voltage drop along the feeder
due to load current being taken. It is therefore necessary to check that drop of voltage along
the cable route doesnt exceed the design criteria for the network or operating voltages ranges
of the equipment being fed
Fault current to which the cable is exposed
In addition to the continuous current rating of the cable, cables have also a corresponding
short time rating. This is rarely a bases for the sizing of the larger cables, but it must always
be checked, When setting the protection or choosing feeder fusing, to ensure that the
protection adequately protects the cable during the faults
Level of insulation of the cable
In north America, it is customary to design cables for three different overvoltage rating, for
each operating voltage, dependent on the type of neutral grounding system used
For solidly grounded system, where a health phase voltage rise during ground faults is
minimum, a basic cable known as 100% insulation class is used
43
For high resistance grounded system (HR) or for ungrounded systems, where the health
phase voltage rise can reach the full phase to phase voltage, a phase rated voltage cable
known as a 173% class is available
There is also an intermediate class , for use in condition where an intermediate limited
grounding current is allowed. This class is known as 133%
2.34 Cable shielding
It is important for optimum cable design, to control the stress levels in the various layers of
insulation applied in the cable to limit external fields, particularly for higher application
voltages. Internal and external shielding, is used to control these internals stresses
Inner Shield
It consists of semiconducting material, applied over the conductor circumference, to even out
the conductors contours. This shield prevents dielectrics filed lines from being distorted by
the shape of the outer strands of the conductor and eliminates the peak stresses near the
conductor
Figure 2.15: Cable shielding
44
Outer shield
This forms the outer layer of insulation grading and is connected to the grounding to fix the
voltage gradient across the insulation. It also minimizes the effects of the outside electric
field, also it confined electric field inside the cable
2.35 Cable Insulation
When selecting a cable, This should base on service life, dielectric characteristics, resistance
to flame, mechanical strength and flexibility, temperature capability , moisture resistance and
the type of location where the cable has to be installed
2.36 Advantages of materials used for cable conductors
The table below summarizes the pros and cons of copper and aluminum as conductor
materials:
2.37 Advantages Materials used for cable insulation

Thermoplastic compounds are materials that go soft when heated and harden when cooled:
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) is the most commonly used thermoplastic insulator for cables. It is
cheap, durable and widely available. However, the chlorine in PVC (a halogen) causes the
production of thick, toxic, black smoke when burnt and can be a health hazard in areas where
low smoke and toxicity are required (e.g. confined areas such as tunnels). Normal operating
temperatures are typically between 75C and 105C (depending on PVC type). Temperature limit
is 160C (<300mm2) and 140C (>300mm2).
PE (Polyethylene) is part of a class of polymers called polyolefin. Polyethylene has lower
dielectric losses than PVC and is sensitive to moisture under voltage stress (i.e. for high voltages
only).
45
Thermosetting
Thermosetting compounds are polymer resins that are irreversibly cured (e.g. by heat in the
vulcanization process) to form a plastic or rubber:
XLPE (Cross-Linked Polyethylene) has different polyethylene chains linked together (crosslinking) which helps prevent the polymer from melting or separating at elevated temperatures.
Therefore XLPE is useful for higher temperature applications. XLPE has higher dielectric losses
than PE, but has better ageing characteristics and resistance to water treeing. Normal operating
temperatures are typically between 90C and 110C. Temperature limit is 250C.
EPR (Ethylene Propylene Rubber) is a copolymer of ethylene and propylene, and commonly
called an elastomer. EPR is more flexible than PE and XLPE, but has higher dielectric losses
than both. Normal operating temperatures are typically between 90C and 110C. Temperature
limit is 250C.
The table below summarizes advantages and disadvantages of material used for cable insulation
46
2.38 Dielectric Stress

Dielectric stress is the electrostatic force divided by the area.
A high-voltage cable (HV cable) is a cable used for electric power transmission at high voltage.
A cable includes a conductor and insulation, and is suitable for being run underground or
underwater. This is in contrast to a conductor, which does not have insulation.
High-voltage cables of differing types have a variety of applications in instruments, ignition
systems, and AC and DC power transmission. In all applications, the insulation of the cable must
not deteriorate due to the high-voltage stress, ozone produced by electric discharges in air, or
tracking. The cable system must prevent contact of the high-voltage conductor with other objects
or persons, and must contain and control leakage current. Cable joints and terminals must be
designed to control the high-voltage stress to prevent breakdown of the insulation. Often a highvoltage cable will have a metallic shield layer over the insulation, connected to the ground and
designed to equalize the dielectric stress on the insulation layer.
2.39 Methods of stress control in high voltage cable
There are basically two methods to control effects of dielectric stress
Grading method
AC cables are designed to be suitable for specific design voltages, which is called the "Voltage
Grade" (or "Voltage Designation", "Voltage Class" or "Voltage Rating") of the cable. The
voltage grade is commonly expressed in the following form: U0 /U
Where U0 is the power frequency voltage between phase and earth (V rms)
U is the power frequency voltage between two phase conductors (V rms)
Inter sheath grading
Inter sheath Grading is a method of creating uniform voltage gradient across the insulation by
means of separating the insulation into two or more layers by thin conductive strips. These strips
are kept at different voltage levels through the secondary of a transformer. This ensures that all
parts of the insulation are exposed to relatively the same stress.
Inter sheath Grading is a method of ensuring that the voltage gradient across the insulation of a
cable does not become so steep as to cause the failure of the insulation. The insulation of a cable
is subjected to constant electrostatic stress. This electrical stress is dependent on the voltage of
the conductor. The electrostatic stress needs to be uniform across the insulation. Uneven
electrostatic stresses can result in failure of the insulation.
47
2.40 Principle of earthing power supply systems

Suitable power supply systems, according to the type of connection to the earth, are required.
The type of connection to the earth must be selected carefully for the medium or low voltage
network, as it has major impact on the expense required for protective measures
In TN systems, in the event of short circuit, to an exposed conductive part, a considerable part of
the single-pole short-circuits current is not fed back to the power source via a connection to earth
but via the protective conductor.
TN system: In the TN system, one operating line is directly earthed; the exposed conductive
parts in the electrical installation are connected to this earthed point via protective conductors.
Dependent on the arrangement of the protective (PE) and neutral (N) conductors. The following
are the types of TN system
a) TN-S system:
This is probably the most usual earthing system in the UK, with the Electricity Supply
Company providing an earth terminal at the incoming mains position. This earth terminal
is connected by the supply protective conductor (PE) back to the star point (neutral) of
the secondary winding of the supply transformer, which is also connected at that point to
an earth electrode. The earth conductor usually takes the form of the armour and sheath
(if applicable) of the underground supply cable. The system is shown diagrammatically
Figure 2.16: TN S Systems

b) TN-C system
This installation is unusual, because combined neutral and earth wiring is used in both the
supply and within the installation itself. Where used, the installation will usually be the
earthed concentric system, which can only be installed under the special conditions
Figure 2.17: TN-C system

48
c) TN-C-S system
In a part of the system, the functions of the neutral and protective conductor are combined in
one conductor (PEN).
Figure 2.18: TN-C-S system

d) TT system:
This arrangement covers installations not provided with an earth terminal by the
Electricity Supply Company. Thus it is the method employed by most (usually rural)
installations fed by an overhead supply. Neutral and earth (protective) conductors must
be kept quite separate throughout the installation, with the final earth terminal connected
to an earth electrode by means of an earthing conductor.
Figure 2.19: TT system

Effective earth connection is sometimes difficult. Because of this, socket outlet circuits
must be protected by a residual current device (RCD) with an operating current of 30 mA
49
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 DC Machines
DC machines are the electromechanical converters, which work form a dc source and generate
mechanical power, or convert mechanical power into a DC power. DC Machines, can be
operated mainly in two Modes, Electric Motor Modes, and Generator Mode
3.1 Electric Motors Mode
When the input to an electrical machine is electrical energy, (seen as Applying a voltage to the
electrical terminals of the machine), and the Output is mechanical energy, (seen as a rotating
shaft), the machine is called an electric motor.
3.2 Principle of operation of a simple D.C. motor
A rectangular coil which is free to rotate about a fixed axis is shown placed
Inside a magnetic field produced by permanent magnets as seen in Figure below. A direct current
is fed into the coil via carbon brushes bearing on a commutator, which consists of a metal ring
split into two halves separated by insulation.
Figure 3.1: Principle Operation Of a DC motor

When current flows in the coil a magnetic field is set up around the coil which interacts with
the magnetic field produced by the magnets. This causes a force F to be exerted on the currentcarrying conductor which, by Flemings left-hand rule, is downwards between points A and B
and upward between C and D for the current direction shown above. This causes a torque and
the coil rotates anticlockwise. When the coil has turned through 90 from the position shown
in Figure above, the brushes connected to the positive and negative terminals of the supply
make contact with different halves of the commutator ring, thus reversing the direction of the
current flow in the conductor.
50
If the current is not reversed and the coil rotates past this position the forces acting on it
change direction and it rotates in the opposite direction thus never making more than half a
revolution.
The current direction is reversed every time the coil swings through the vertical position and
thus the coil rotates anti-clockwise for as long as the current flows. This is the principle of
operation of a D.C. motor which is thus a device that takes in electrical energy and converts it
into mechanical energy.
3.3 Generator Mode
When the input to an electrical machine is mechanical energy, (seen as, say, a diesel motor,
coupled to the machine by a shaft), and the output is electrical energy, (seen as a voltage
appearing at the electrical terminals of the machine), the machine is called a generator. Thus, a
generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is dc generator. Whatever may
be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power. An Ac
generator produces alternating power. A DC generator produces direct power. Both of these
generators produce electrical power, based on same fundamental principle of Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction.
According to this law, when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines force,
due to which an EMF is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced EMF depends
upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor. This EMF will
cause an current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
3.4 Principle of operation of a simple Generator
In the figure below, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two
opposite poles of magnet.
Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the magnetic
field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal
position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of
the loop cut the flux lines there will be an EMF induced in these both of the sides (AB & BC) of
the loop.
51
Figure 3.2: Principle operation of generator

As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the
current can be determined by Flemings right hand Rule. This rule says that is you stretch thumb,
index finger and middle finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs
indicates the direction of motion of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction of
magnetic field i.e. N - pole to S - pole, and middle finger indicates the direction of flow of
current through the conductor.
Now if we apply this right hand rule, we will see at this horizontal position of the loop, current
will flow from point A to B and on the other side of the loop current will flow from point C to D.
Figure 3.3: Rotating Rectangular coil in a Generator

Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now
upper side of the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous
vertical position). At this position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the
flux lines of the field. Hence there will be no question of flux cutting and consequently there will
be no current in the loop. Observe the figure below
52
Figure 3.4: Generator rotating
If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of the
loop comes in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous
horizontal position as shown in the figure below
.
Figure 3.5: Generator rotating
Now the loop is opened and connects it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split ring
are made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated from
each other. The external load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which are rest on
these split slip ring segments.
53
Figure 3.6 : DC Generator

It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush
no 1 in contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the
induced current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b
are also reversed which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with that segment b. Hence, the
current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The wave from of the current through the
load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional.
Figure below, shows the Waveforms of the EMF voltage against angle
Figure 3.7: DC production In Generator
54
3.5 DC machine construction

The basic parts of any D.C. machine are shown in Figure below,
Figure 3.8: DC machine construction

DC machines, comprises of the following main parts
a. a stationary part called the stator having,
i. a steel ring called the yoke, to which are attached
ii. the magnetic poles, around which are the
iii. field windings, i.e. many turns of a conductor wound round the pole core; current passing
through this conductor creates an electromagnet,
b. a rotating part called the armature mounted in bearings housed in
The stator and having,
i.
a laminated cylinder of iron or steel called the core, on which
Teeth are cut to house the
ii.
armature winding, i.e. a single or multi-loop conductor system and
iii. the commutator
Armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on how the wires are joined to the
commutator. These are called wave windings and lap windings.
a. In wave windings there are two paths in parallel irrespective of the number of poles,
each path supplying half the total current output. Wave wound generators produce high
voltage, low current outputs.
b. In lap windings there are as many paths in parallel as the machine has poles. The total
current output divides equally between them. Lap wound generators produce high
current, low voltage output.
55
3.6 Classification of DC Machine
Figure 3.9: Classification of DC Machine

D.C machines are classified according to the method of their field excitation. These
groupings are:. There are two basic DC machines
i. Separately-excited DC machines, where the field winding is connected to a source of
supply other than the armature of its own machine.
ii. Self-excited DC Machines, where the field winding receives its supply from the
armature of its own machine, and which are sub-divided into
a) Shunt wound DC machines
b) Series Wound DC Machines
c) Compound wound DC machine
a) Shunt wound DC machines
When the field winding of a D.C. machine is connected in parallel with the armature, as
shown in Figure below, the machine is said to be shunt wound.
Figure 3.10: Shut wound DC motor
56
b) Series Wound DC Machines

If the field winding is connected in series with the armature, as shown in Figure below,
then the machine is said to be series wound.
Figure 3.11: Series Wound DC motor

c) Compound wound DC machine
Compound wound machine has a combination of series and shunt windings
Depending on whether the electrical machine is series wound, shunt wound or compound
wound, it behaves differently when a load is applied. The behavior of a DC machine
under various conditions is shown by means of graphs, called characteristic curves or just
characteristics. The characteristics shown in the following sections are theoretical, since
they neglect the effects of armature reaction.
3.7 EMF equation of a dc machine

Let z= be number of armature conductors
Let = be useful flux per pole, in Webbers
p= number of pairs of poles
n= armature speed in rev/sec
The e.m.f. generated by the armature is equal to the e.m.f. generated by one of the
parallel paths. Each conductor passes 2p poles per revolution and
Total flux cut per revolution is given by = 2p Wb
Hence flux cut by one conductor per second =2pn Wb
so the average EMF E generated per conductor is given by =2pn Wb
Let c be a number of parallel paths through the winding between positive and negative
brushes
c=2 for a wave winding
c=2p for a lap winding
z
The number of conductors in series in each path is given by
c
The total e.m.f. between brushes is given by
2 p nz
Remember this (tuponz)
E
c
Where this formula can be expressed in different format as shown below
57
2 p nz
z
, N number of turns
c
c
E 2 p nN , but k 2 pn cons tan t
E
E 2 pn N
E k N
Where K=constant
N=number of turns/conductors per parallel path
=flux per pole
58
59
60
3.8 D.C generators

3.9 Types of D.C, generator and their characteristics
D.C generators are classified according to the method of their field excitation. These
groupings are:
i. Separately-excited DC Generator, where the field winding is connected to a source of
supply other than the armature of its own machine.
ii. Self-excited DC Generators, where the field winding receives its supply from the
armature of its own machine, and which are sub-divided into (a) shunt, (b) series, and (c)
compound wound generators
i.
Separately-excited generator
A typical separately-excited generator circuit is shown in Figure below,
Figure 3.12: Separately Excited generator

61
When a load is connected across the armature terminals, a load current Ia

Will flow. The terminal voltage V will fall from its open-circuit E.M.F E
Due to a volt drop caused by current flowing through the armature resistance, shown as
Ra
a)
62
3.10 Generator Characteristics

The two principal generator characteristics
a) the open-circuit characteristic
Are the generated voltage/field current characteristics. A typical separately-excited
generator open-circuit characteristic is shown in Figure below
Figure 3.13: Open Circuit Characteristics
63
b) the load characteristic

the terminal voltage/load current characteristic. A typical load
Characteristics shown in Figure below
Figure 3.14: The load characteristics

3.11 Application of Separately excited field windings
A separately-excited generator is used only in special cases, such as when a wide
variation in terminal p.d. is required, or when exact control of the field current is
necessary. Its disadvantage lies in requiring a separate source of direct current.
ii. Self-excited DC Generators,
a) Shunt-wound generator
In a shunt wound generator the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature as
shown in Figure below. The field winding has a relatively high resistance and therefore
the current carried is only a fraction of the armature current.
Figure 3.15 : Self Excited DC generator
64
a) Consider the circuit below
65
3.12 Open circuit Characteristics

The generated EMF, E, is proportional , hence at constant speed, since, =2n, E. Also the
flux is proportional, to field current If until magnetic saturation of the iron circuit of the
generator occurs. Hence the open circuit characteristic is as shown below
Figure 3.16: Open circuit Characteristics
66
3.13 Load characteristics

As the load current on a generator having constant field current and running at constant speed
increases, the value of armature current increases, hence the armature volt drop, IaRa increases
The generated voltage E is larger than the terminal voltage V and the voltage equation for the
armature circuit is given below
Since E is constant decreases with increasing load. The load characteristic is as shown in Figure
below
In practice, the fall in voltage is about 10% between no-load and full-load for many DC shuntwound generators. The shunt-wound generator is the type most used in practice, but the load
current must be limited to a value that is well below the maximum value. This then avoids
excessive variation of the terminal voltage.
Figure 3.17: Load Characteristics

3.14 Application of a shunt wound DC generators
Typical applications are with battery charging and motor car generators.
b)
Series Wound Generators

In the series-wound generator the field winding is connected in series with the armature
as shown in Figure, below
Figure 3.18: Series Wound DC Generator
67
The generated voltage equation is given by

E V IaRa
or
V E IaRa
3.15 Load characteristics of DC generator

The load characteristic is the terminal voltage/current characteristic. The generated EMF E, is
proportional to , and at constant speed( =2n is also constant). Thus E is proportional to ,
E. A typical load characteristic for a series generator is shown in Figure, below
Figure 3.19 : Load Characteristics of a DC generator

3.16 Open circuit characteristics
In a series-wound generator, the field winding is in series with the armature and it is not possible
to have a value of field current when the terminals are open circuited, thus it is not possible to
obtain an open circuit characteristic.
3.17 Application of a series wound generators

Series-wound generators are rarely used in practice, but can be used as a booster on DC
transmission lines.
68
c) Compound-wound generator
In the compound-wound generator two methods of connection are used, both having a
mixture of shunt and series windings, designed to combine the advantages of each. Figure
below shows what is termed a long shunt compound generator
Figure 3.20: Long shunt compound DC generator

And also, Figure below shows a short-shunt compound generator
Figure 3.21: Short shunt compound DC Generator
69
Consider the circuit below
70
3.18 Characteristics Compound Wound Machines

In cumulative-compound machines the magnetic flux produced by the series and shunt fields are
additive. Included in this group are over-compounded, level-compounded and undercompounded machinesthe degree of compounding obtained depending on the number of
turns of wire on the series winding.
A large number of series winding turns results in an over-compounded characteristic, as shown
in Figure below, in which the full-load terminal voltage exceeds the no-load voltage. A levelcompound machine gives a full-load terminal voltage which is equal to the no-load voltage, as
shown in same Figure
Figure 3.22: Characteristics of compound Wound generator

An under-compounded machine gives a full-load terminal voltage which is less than the no-load
voltage, as shown in Figure above. However even this latter characteristic is a little better than
that for a shunt generator alone.
3.19 Application of compound Generators
Compound-wound generators are used in electric arc welding, with lighting sets and with marine
equipment.
71
3.20 Source of Losses in DC machines

As stated earlier, a generator is a machine for converting mechanical energy into electrical
energy and a motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. When
such conversions take place, certain losses occur which are dissipated in the form of heat.
The principal losses of machines are
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Copper loss, due to I2 R heat losses in the armature and field windings.
Iron (or core) loss, due to hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the armature. This loss
can be reduced by constructing the armature of silicon steel laminations having a high
resistivity and low hysteresis loss. At constant speed, the iron loss is assumed constant.
Friction and windage losses, due to bearing and brush contact friction and losses due to
air resistance against moving parts (called windage). At constant speed, these losses are
assumed to be constant.
Brush contact loss between the brushes and commutator. This loss is approximately
proportional to the load current. The total losses of a machine can be quite significant and
operating efficiencies of between 80% and 90% are common.
3.21 Efficiency of a DC generator

The efficiency of an electrical machine is the ratio of the output power to the input power and is
usually expressed as a percentage. The Greek letter, (eta) is used to signify efficiency and
since the units are power/power, then efficiency has no units. Thus
If the total resistance of the armature circuit (including brush contact resistance) is Ra, then the
total loss in the armature circuit is I2aRa. If the terminal voltage is V and the current in the shunt
circuit is If, then the loss in the shunt circuit is If V.
If the sum of the iron, friction and windage losses is C then the total losses is given by:
If the output current is I, then the output power is VI
72
The efficiency of a generator is a maximum when the load is such that
The circuit is shown in Figure below
73
3.22 DC Motors
The construction of a DC motor is the same as a DC generator. The only difference is that in a
generator the generated e.m.f. is greater than the terminal voltage, whereas in a motor the
generated e.m.f. is less than the terminal voltage.
DC motors are often used in power stations to drive emergency standby pump systems which
come into operation to protect essential equipment and plant should the normal AC supplies or
pumps fail.
3.23 Back E.M.F
When a DC motor rotates, an e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductors. By Lenzs law this
induced E.M.F E opposes the supply voltage V and is called aback E.M.F and the supply
voltage, V is given by:
74
3.24 Torque of a DC Motor

From equation above, for a DC Motor, the supply voltage V is given by
Multiplying each term by current Ia gives:
75
76
77
78
3.25 Types of DC motor and their characteristics

a) Shunt-wound motor
In the shunt wound motor the field winding is in parallel with the armature across the
supply as shown in Figure below
Figure 3.23: Shunt wound DC motor
79
3.26 Characteristics of shunt wound DC motor

The two principal characteristics are found here
i.
the torque/armature current
The theoretical torque/armature current characteristic can be derived from the
expression below
For a shunt wound motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the
Armature circuit and thus the applied voltage give a constant field
Current, i.e. a shunt-wound motor is a constant flux machine.
Since is constant, it follows that
and the characteristic is as shown in Figure below
Figure 3.24: Torque Armature current characteristics
80
ii.
Speed/armature current relationships

The armature circuit of a DC motor has resistance due to the armature winding
and brushes, Ra ohms, and when armature current Ia is flowing through it, there
is a voltage drop of IaRa volts. Consider the graph below
Figure 3.25: Speed Armature current characteristics

So, when the Motor is rotated, the EMF E , generated is given by the following
equation
Also, even though the machine is a motor, because conductors are rotating in a
magnetic field, a voltage, is generated by the armature conductors
But =2n
Therefore, from the above equations, we can conclude that
For a shunt motor, , and Ra are constants, hence as armature

Current Ia increases, IaRa increases and V-IaRa decreases, and
The speed is proportional to a quantity which is decreasing and is
as shown in Figure above
As the load on the shaft of the motor increases, Ia increases and the speed drops
slightly. In practice, the speed falls by about 10% between no-load and full-load
on many DC shunt-wound motors
81
3.27 Application of Shunt wound DC motors

Due to this relatively small drop in speed, the DC shunt-wound motor is taken as basically being
a constant-speed machine and may be used for driving lathes, lines of shafts, fans, conveyor
belts, pumps, compressors, drilling machines
Since torque is proportional to armature current, (see a above), the Theoretical speed/torque
characteristic is as shown in Figure 3.25
82
b) Series-wound DC motor
In the series-wound motor the field winding is in series with the armature across the
supply as shown in Figure below
Figure 3.26: Series wound DC motor
83
3.28 Characteristics of series DC wound Motor

In a series motor, the armature current flows in the field winding and is equal to the supply
current, I
There are also two graphs/ characteristics here
i.
The torque/current characteristic.

It has been shown that torque
Since the armature and field currents are the same current, I, in a series machine,
Then
This is Over a limited range, before magnetic saturation of the Magnetic circuit
of the motor is reached, (i.e., the linear portion of the BH curve for the yoke,
poles, air gap, brushes and armature in series).
Thus
After magnetic saturation, almost becomes a constant and TI. Thus the
theoretical torque/current characteristic is as shown in Figure below
Figure 3.27: Torque current characteristics

ii.
The speed/current characteristic

It has been shown in equation above that
In a series motor Ia= I and below the magnetic saturation level, I. Thus
Where R is the combined resistance of the series field and armature circuit. Since
IR is small compared with V, then an approximate relationship for the speed is
since
Vis constant. Hence the theoretical speed/current characteristic is as shown in
Figure below
84
Figure 3.28: Speed current characteristics

The high speed at small values of current indicates that this type of motor must
not be run on very light loads and invariably, such motors are permanently
coupled to their loads.
The theoretical speed/torque characteristic may be derived from (i) and (ii)
above by obtaining the torque and speed for various values of current and
plotting the co-ordinates on the speed/torque characteristics. A typical
speed/torque characteristic is shown in Figure below
Figure 3.29: Speed Torque characteristics
85
a) Generated e.m.f., E, at initial load ,is given by
86
c) Compound wound DC Motor

There are two types of compound wound motor:
i.
Cumulative compound,
In which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it assists that due to the
shunt winding.
ii.
Differential compound,
In which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it opposes that due to the
shunt winding.
Further compound wound DC motors; can be subdivided into following groups
i.
Long-shunt compound motor
Figure 3.30: Long shunt compound motor

ii.
short-shunt compound motor
Figure 3.31: Short-shunt compound motor
87
3.29 Characteristics of compound wound DC Motor

A compound-wound motor has both a series and a shunt field winding, (i.e. one winding in series
and one in parallel with the armature), and is usually wound to have a characteristic similar in
shape to a series wound motor
A limited amount of shunt winding is present to restrict the no-load speed to a safe value.
However, by varying the number of turns on the series and shunt windings and the directions of
the magnetic fields produced by these windings (assisting or opposing), families of
characteristics may be obtained to suit almost all applications.
Typical compound motor torque and speed characteristics are shown in Figure below
Figure 3.32: Characteristics of compound wound DC Motor
3.30 Application of compound DC wound Motor

Generally, compound-wound motors are used for heavy duties, particularly in applications where
sudden heavy load may occur such as for driving plunger pumps, presses, geared lifts,
conveyors, hoists and so on.
3.31 The efficiency of a DC motor

It has been stated that, the efficiency of a DC machine is given by:
88
The circuit, can be drawn as shown below
89
The circuit can be redrawn as shown below
90
But efficiency, is given by the following formula
91
92
3.32 DC motor starter

Is a special a device containing a variable resistance connected in series to the armature winding
so as to limit the starting current of dc motor to a desired optimum value taking into
consideration the safety aspect of the motor.
If a DC motor whose armature is stationary is switched directly to its supply voltage, it is likely
that the fuses protecting the motor will burn out.
This is because the armature resistance is small, frequently being less than one ohm. Thus,
additional resistance must be added to the armature circuit at the instant of closing the switch to
start the motor.
As the speed of the motor increases, the armature conductors are cutting flux and a generated
voltage, acting in opposition to the applied voltage, is produced, which limits the flow of
armature current. Thus the value of the additional armature resistance can then be reduced.
When at normal running speed, the generated e.m.f. is such that no additional resistance is
required in the armature circuit. To achieve this varying resistance in the armature circuit on
starting, a DC motor starter is used
Consider the diagram below that shows a DC motor starter
Figure 3.33: DC motor Starter

The starting handle is moved slowly in a clockwise direction to start the motor. For a shuntwound motor, the field winding is connected to stud 1 or to L via a sliding contact on the starting
handle, to give maximum field current, hence maximum flux, hence maximum torque on
starting, since T Ia
93
3.33 The need for Motor Starter

Motor starter helps to limit starting current of a DC motor, since motor has a very high starting
current that has the potential of damaging the internal circuit of the armature winding of dc
motor if not restricted to some limited value.
3.34 Methods of varying the speed of a DC Motors
To vary speed of a DC motors, depend very much on the type of DC motors
i.
Shunt-wound motors
It has been shown that, The speed of a shunt-wound DC motor, n, is proportional
to
i.e.
n (V-IaRa)/
The speed is varied either by varying the value of flux, , or by varying the value
of Ra
The former (Ra) is achieved by using a variable resistor called the shunt field
regulator in series with the field winding, as shown in Figure below
Figure 3.34: applying shunt filed regulator

As the value of resistance of the shunt field regulator is increased, the value of the field current,
If is decreased. This results in a decrease in the value of flux, and hence an increase in the speed,
since
Thus only speeds above that given without a shunt field regulator can be obtained by this
method.
Speeds below those given by
94
are obtained by increasing the resistance in the armature circuit, as shown in Figure below
Figure 3.35: Increasing armature resistance

Since resistor R is in series with the armature resistance Ra therefore, the equation is changed to
In this case, it carries the full armature current and results in a large power loss in large motors
where a considerable speed reduction is required for long periods.
These methods of speed control are demonstrated in the following worked problem
95
a) With reference to Figure below
96
ii.
Series Wound DC motors

Variation in speed of series-wound motors is achieved using either
(a) Field resistance or (b) armature resistance techniques.
a) Field resistance
Remember this equation derived earlier
The speed of a DC series-wound motor is given by:
Where k is a constant, Vis the terminal voltage, R is the combined

Resistance of the armature and series field (Ra +Rf ) and is the flux.
Thus, a reduction in flux results in an increase in speed. This is achieved by
putting a variable resistance in parallel with the field winding and reducing the
field current, and hence fluxes, for a given value of supply current
A circuit diagram of this arrangement is shown in Figure below
Figure 3.36; Variable resistor in series wound Motor

A variable resistor connected in parallel with the series-wound field to control
speed is called a diverter. Speeds above those given with no diverter are obtained
by this method.
This scenario can be further demonstrated using the following example
97
98
b) Armature resistance techniques.

Speeds below normal are obtained by connecting a variable resistor in series with the
field winding and armature circuit, as shown in Figure below. This effectively increases
the value of R in the equation
And thus reduces the speed. Since the additional resistor carries the full supply current, a
large power loss is associated with large motors in which a considerable speed reduction
is required for long periods.
99
With reference to the figure below at 800rev/min
100
3.35 Armature Reaction and Commutation in DC Machines

3.36 Commutation in DC Machine
is the process in which generated alternating current in the armature winding of a dc machine is
converted into direct current after going through the commutator and the stationary brushes.
The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating magnetic field, of a DC generator is
alternating in nature.
Commutation is the positioning of the DC generator brushes so that the commutator segments
change brushes at the same time the armature current changes direction. More simply stated,
commutation is the mechanical conversion from AC to DC at the brushes of a DC machine, as
shown in Figure below
Figure 3.37: Commutation Process

In order to achieve sparkless commutation, the brushes must lie along M.N.A.
3.37 Armature Reaction
Is the phenomena where by armature flux react in opposite to the main flux (Field flux)
In a DC Machines, the purpose of field winding is to produce magnetic field (Called main flux)
whereas the purpose of armature winding is to carry armature Current.
Although the armature winding is not provided for the purpose of producing a magnetic field,
nevertheless the current in the armature winding will also produce magnetic flux (called
armature flux)
The armature flux distorts and weakens the main flux from field winding, posing problems for
the proper operation of the DC Machines
101
3.38 Mains magnetic field of a machines

Main field of a machine is obtained only when excited machine, say a generator is operated at
NO load condition. This filed is represented by an arrow , which indicates the direction of
magnetic flux form the north pole to south pole as shown in figure below
Figure 3.38: Main Magnetic field in DC Machine

In the figure above, there is a symmetrical distribution of flux with respect to the
polar axis, which is a line joining the centers of North Pole (N) and South Pole (S)
Magnetic neutral axis or Plane (MNA) coincidence with geometrical neutral axis
or plane (GNA)
Magnetic neutral axis may be defined as the axis along which no e.m.f is
produced in the armature conductors because they then move parallel to the
conductors
It may also be defined as the axis which is perpendicular to the flux passing
through the armature
Brushes are always placed along MNA. Hence, MNA is also called the axis of
commutation because reversal of a current in the armature conductor , takes place
across this axis
102
3.39 Armature field

A load is now connected to the excited machine, and of course current flow exist. Consider the
figure below that shows the armature rotating in magnetic file. The direction of the armature
conductors, may be determined from Fleming right hand rule, and the direction of the magnetic
field around each conductors may be determined from Right hand grip rule
Figure 3.39: Armature Magnetic field in DC Machine

When current flows in a conductor, magnetic fields are set up around as shown above. When
several conductors are placed together, the flux from each conductor is combined to form a
resultant flux. Note the direction of resultant flux. The flux from the conductors on the left side
of the armature and the flux from the conductors on the right side of the armature, causes the
resultant flux on the centre of the armature, that is downward in the direction
This resultant flux can be represented by an arrows indicated, noting that arrows passes
through both top and bottom brushes
The armature magnetic field has two effects on the Field winding magnetic field
i.
It demagnetises or weakens the main magnetic field
ii.
It cross magnetizes or distort it
103
Now there are two fluxes inside the machine, one produced by the main filed poles of the
machine, and the other by the current in the armature coil. These two fluxes now combine to
form a new resultant flux shown in figure below
Figure 3.40: Armature reaction in DC Machines

This new resultant flux, is not in the same direction as the original main field flux, but runs from
the tip of the poles across the armature to the tip of the other pole
The armature conductors are now cutting this new resultant flux. The brushes are now supposed
to be located at the point of minimum flux, which of course are at right angles to the direction of
flux.
Since the brushes were originally at right angles to the direction of flux produced by the main
filed poles, they are certainly not at right angles to the direction of the new resultant flux
With the brushes in their present location (At right angle to the main flux poles), they will be
short circuiting the coils in which there is voltage induced, there by producing a sparking at the
brushes, causes the brushes to wear and other
3.40 Methods to neutralize armature reaction and commutation in DC Machines
If magnetic neutral axis or plane is shifted in the direction of rotation, commutation is seriously
affected because sparking will occur at brushes unless they are shifted to the new magnetic
neutral plane
Furthermore the brushes must be shifted back and forth continuously as the load changes,
because effects of armature reaction depend upon the value of the armature current. In practice
repeated brush shifting would of course be almost objectionable as the sparking that it attempts
to correct
This has led to several corrective methods that counteract in part or completely the detrimental
effects of armature reaction as follows
104
a) By increasing the length of the air gap

The equivalent gap is usually made longer under the pole tips than elsewhere or by using
the punchings as shown below
This is accomplished either by cutting off, or chamfering the pole tips

The use of the long air gap, make the air gap reluctance (resistance), to become high.
This would requires a strong m.m.f (magnetomotive force) in order to force the flux to
pass across the air gap
On account of the greater equivalent air gap length under the pole tips, the influence of
the armature m.m.f in shifting the main filed is greatly minimized
b) By providing the machine with a compensating winding
Compensating winding is placed in slots of the poles of the machines as shown in figure
below. And is usually connected in series with the armature winding in such a way that at
any point in the air gap, the current will be flowing in opposite direction to the current in
the armature winding.
In this case, if the compensating winding has the same m.m.f as the armature m.m.f, the
m.m.f of the armature will be completely neutralized. Hence overall armature reaction
will be neutralized
c) By reducing the cross sectional area of the pole pieces
When the cross sectional area of the pole pieces is reduced, it becomes highly saturated
and offer large reluctance to the cross field
105
d) By using commutating pole

Commutating pole is small auxiliary pole, mounted on the frame between the pole. These
poles must be wound in such a way that, their actions opposes that of the cross field
Further Problems in DC machines
106
107
108
109
110
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Induction Motors
As general rule, conversion of electrical power to Mechanical power take place in rotating part
called ROTOR of an electric motor.
In D.C Motor, the electric current is usually conducted directly to the armature (Rotating part),
through brushes and commutator. In this case D.C Motors are called CONDUCTION MOTOR.
However, In A.C motor, the rotating Part (ROTOR), doesnt receive electric current by
conduction, rather it receives by INDUCTION, Thats why A.C motors are referred to as
INDUCTION Motors
In a DC machines, conductors on a rotating armature pass through a stationary magnetic field
In a three-phase induction motor, the magnetic field rotates and this has the advantage that no
external electrical connections to the rotor need be made. Its name is derived from the fact that
the current in the rotor is induced by the magnetic field instead of being supplied through
electrical connections to the supply.
4.1 Advantages of using a rotating magnetic field instead of stationary magnetic field
i. The motor is cheap and robust
ii. Motor is explosion proof, due to the absence of a commutator or slip-rings and brushes
with their associated sparking
iii. Motor requires little or no skilled maintenance
iv.
The motor has self-starting properties when switched to a supply with no additional
expenditure on auxiliary equipment
4.2 Advantages of a Three Phase Induction Motors
i. It has simple and extremely rugged , almost Unbreakable construction (Especially,
squirrel cage Type)
ii. Its cost is low, and it is very reliable Motor
iii. It has sufficient very high efficient. In normal running condition, no brushes are needed,
hence frictional loss is reduced. It has a reasonable good power factor
iv.
It requires minimum maintenance
v. It start up from rest, and needs no extra starting motor, and has not to be synchronized
111
4.3 Principle disadvantages of a three phase induction motor

i.
Its speed cannot be easily varied without affecting efficiency
ii.
Just like DC motor, its speed decreases with increasing in load
iii.
Starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a DC motor
4.4 Classes of AC Machines
There are basically two major classes of AC electrical machines,
a) Synchronous Machines
b) Induction machines
4.5 Three phase Induction Motor

Three phase induction motor as this type of motor does not require any starting device or
we can say they are self-starting induction motor.
Basically there are two types of 3 phases Induction Motor
1. Squirrel cage induction motor
2. Phase Wound induction motor (slip-ring induction motor).
Both types have similar constructed rotor, but they differ in construction of rotor. This is
explained further
4.6 Construction of a three phase induction motor
Just like any other motor, a 3 phase induction motor also consists of a stator and a rotor
Stator
The stator of a three-phase induction motor is the stationary part corresponding to the yoke of
a DC machine. It is made up of number of stampings, which are slotted to receive the
windings It is wound to give a 2-pole, 4-pole, 6-pole, rotating magnetic field, depending on
the rotor speed required. The number of poles is determined from the required speed. For
greater speed, lesser number of poles is used and vice versa.
Starter carries 3 phase winding, and is fed from a 3 phase supply
112
Consider the diagrams below
Figure 4.1 : Stator

When stator windings are supplied with 3 phase ac supply, they produce alternating flux
120 f
which revolves with synchronous speed given by N s
, where P= number of poles
p
produced in a rotating magnetic field , P=2n, where n= number of stator slots/pole/phase, f=
frequency of the AC supply
Rotor
The rotor, corresponding to the armature of a DC machine, is built up of laminated iron, to
reduce eddy currents. As described earlier, rotor of a 3 phase induction motor can be of
either two types, squirrel cage rotor and phase wound rotor (or simply - wound rotor).
4.7 Squirrel cage rotor
Most of the induction motors (up to 90%) are of squirrel cage type. Squirrel cage type rotor
has very simple and almost indestructible construction. This type of rotor consists of a
cylindrical laminated core, having parallel slots on it. Consider the diagram below
Figure 4.2 : Squirrel Cage Rotor

These parallel slots carry rotor conductors. In this type of rotor, heavy bars of copper,
aluminum or alloys are used as rotor conductors instead of wires. One bar is placed in each
slots, rather the bar are inserted from the end when semi-closed slots are used. The rotor bars
113
are blazed or electrically welded or bolted to two heavy and stout short-circuiting end rings
thus giving us what is so pictured as squirrel cage rotor
It should be noted that, rotor bars are permanently short circuited on themselves; hence it
is not possible to add any external resistance in series with the rotor for starting purpose
Rotor slots are slightly skewed to achieve following advantages
1. It reduces locking tendency of the rotor, i.e. the tendency of rotor teeth to remain under
stator teeth due to magnetic attraction.
2. increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor
3. increases rotor resistance due to increased length of the rotor conductor
This type of rotor has no external connection which means that slip rings and brushes are not
needed. The squirrel-cage motor is cheap, reliable and efficient.
A cross-sectional view of a three-phase induction motor is shown in Figure below
Figure 4.3: Cross sectional view of three phase induction motor

Figure above contains 4 conductors per phase, where R=red, Y=yellow=Blue, s=start,
F=finish
4.8 Phase wound rotor

Phase wound rotor is wound with 3 phase, double layer, distributed winding. The number of
poles of rotor is kept same to the number of poles of the stator. The rotor is always wound 3
phase even if the stator is wound two phase.
114
The windings may be internally connected in star or delta and the other three winding terminals
are brought out and connected to three insulated slip rings, mounted on the shaft, with the
brushes resting on them
These three brushes are further externally connected to 3 phase star or delta connected rheostat.
Figure 4.4 : Phase Wound Rotor

This arrangement is done to introduce an external resistance in rotor circuit for starting
purposes and for changing the speed / torque characteristics.
When motor is running at its rated speed, slip rings are automatically short circuited by means of
a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and connects all the rings together
Next the brushes are automatically lifted up from the slip rings to reduce the frictional losses and
the wear and tear hence it is seen that under normal running condition, the wound rotor is short
circuited on itself just like the squirrel cage rotor
The principle of operation is the same for both the squirrel cage and the wound rotor machines.
4.9 Production of a rotating magnetic field
When a three-phase supply is connected to symmetrical three-phase windings, the currents
flowing in the windings produce a magnetic field. This magnetic field is constant in magnitude
and rotates at constant speed as shown below, and is called the synchronous speed.
With reference to Figure below, the windings are represented by three single-loop conductors,
one for each phase, marked RS , RF , YS , YF and BS , BF , the S and F signifying start and finish
115
Figure 4.5: Production of Rotating Magnetic Field

In practice, each phase winding comprises many turns and is distributed around the stator; the
single-loop approach is for clarity only.
When the stator windings are connected to a three-phase supply, the current flowing in each
winding varies with time and is as shown in Figure below
Figure 4.6: Rotating Magnetic field

If the value of current in a winding is positive, the assumption is made that it flows from start to
finish of the winding, i.e., if it is the red phase, current flows from RS to RF, i.e. away from the
viewer in RS and towards the viewer in RF
When the value of current is negative, the assumption is made that it flows from finish to start,
i.e. towards the viewer in an S winding and away from the viewer in an F winding.
At time, sayt1, shown in Figure above, the current flowing in the red phase is a maximum
positive value. At the same time, t1, the currents flowing in the yellow and blue phases are both
0.5 times the maximum value and are negative.
The current distribution in the stator windings is therefore as shown in Figure below, in which
current flows away from the viewer, (shown as x mark enclosed in a circle) in RS, since it is
116
positive, but towards the viewer (shown as dot mark enclosed in a circle) in YS and BS, since
these are negative.

The resulting magnetic field is as shown below, due to the solenoid action and application of
the corkscrew rule (Right hand grip rule)
A short time later at timet2, the current flowing in the red phase has fallen to about 0.87 times its
maximum value and is positive, the current in the yellow phase is zero and the current in the blue
phase is about 0.87 times its maximum value and is negative. Hence the currents and resultant
magnetic field are as shown in Figure below
Figure 4.8: Rotating magnetic field

At time t3, the currents in the red and yellow phases are 0.5 of their maximum values and the
current in the blue phase is a maximum negative value. The currents and resultant magnetic field
are as shown below
117

4.10 Principle of operation of a three-phase induction motor
When a three-phase supply is connected to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field is
produced. As the magnetic flux cuts a bar on the rotor, an e.m.f. is induced in it and since it is
joined, via the end conducting rings, to another bar one pole pitch away, current flows in the
bars. The magnetic field associated with this current flowing in the bars interacts with the
Rotating magnetic field and a force is produced, tending to turn the rotor in the same direction as
the rotating magnetic field, see the figure below
Figure 4.10: Operation of a three phase induction Motor

Similar forces are applied to all the conductors on the rotor, so that a torque is produced causing
the rotor to rotate.
4.11 Synchronous speed of induction Motors
The synchronous speed of an AC motor is the speed of the stator's magnetic field rotation
The rotating magnetic field produced by three phase windings could have been produced by
rotating a permanent magnets north and south pole at synchronous speed. (Shown as N and S at
the ends of the flux phasors) Consider the diagram below
118
Figure 4.11: 2 poles Induction Motor

For this reason, an induction motor using three phase windings only is called a 2-pole induction
motor. Since it contains only N-pole and S-pole of a magnet
If six windings displaced from one another by 60 are used, as shown in Figure below, It can be
seen that for six windings on the stator, the magnetic flux produced is the same as that produced
by rotating two permanent magnet north poles and two permanent magnet south poles at
synchronous speed
This is called a 4-pole system and an induction motor using six phase Windings is called a 4-pole
induction motor. By increasing the number of phase windings the number of poles can be
increased to any even number.
Figure 4.12: 4 poles Induction motor
119
By drawing the current and resultant magnetic field diagrams at various time values, it may be
shown that one cycle of the supply current to the stator windings causes the magnetic field to
move through half a revolution.
In general, if f is the frequency of the currents in the stator windings and the stator is
wound to be equivalent to p pairs of poles, the speed of revolution of the rotating magnetic
field, i.e., the synchronous speed, nS is given by:
120 f rev
min
p
where
nS
p total number of , poles

Another formula
f
nS rev
sec
p
f frequency of current in Hz
p pair of poles
120
4.12 Slip in Induction Motor

Slip may be fined as the deviation or difference in speed between the rotor speed and the
synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field
The force exerted by the rotor bars causes the rotor to turn in the direction of the rotating
magnetic field. As the rotor speed increases, the rate at which the rotating magnetic field cuts the
rotor bars is less and the frequency of the induced e.m.f.s in the rotor bars is less.
If the rotor runs at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field, no e.m.f. are induced in the
rotor, hence there is no force on them and no torque on the rotor. Thus the rotor slows down.
For this reason the rotor can never run at synchronous speed.
Slip speed
May be defined as, The difference between the rotor speed, nr , and the synchronous speed, ns.
When there is no load on the rotor, the resistive forces due to windage and bearing friction are
small and the rotor runs very nearly at synchronous speed. As the rotor is loaded, the speed falls
and this causes an increase in the frequency of the induced e.m.f.s in the rotor bars and hence
the rotor current, force and torque increase.
The difference between the rotor speed, nr , and the synchronous speed, ns, is called the slip
speed, i.e.
121
122
123
4.13 Rotor e.m.f and Frequency

Rotor e.m.f.
When an induction motor is stationary, the stator and rotor windings form the equivalent of a
transformer as shown below
Figure 4.13: Equivalent circuit of a rotor

The rotor e.m.f. at standstill is given by
124
When an induction motor is running, the induced e.m.f. in the rotor is less since the relative
movement between conductors and the rotating field is less. Hence induced e.m.f. is proportional
to this movement, hence it must be proportional to the slip, s
Rotor frequency.
The rotor e.m.f. is induced by an alternating flux and the rate at which the flux passes the
conductors is the slip speed. Thus the frequency of the rotor e.m.f. is given by:
Frequency of a rotor current

When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the supply
frequency. But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depend upon the relative
speed or sleep speed, Let the frequency of the rotor current be f , then we can say that
125
120 f '
....................i
P
120 f
ns
............................ii
P
divide, i / ii
ns nr
ns nr f '
ns
f
f'
f
f ' sf
126
4.14 Rotor Impedance and current

Rotor resistance
The rotor resistance R2 is unaffected by frequency or slip, and hence remains constant.
Equivalent circuit of the rotor when running

Rotor reactance
Rotor reactance varies with the frequency of the rotor current.
Rotor impedance
127
Rotor current
From the figures above of the rotor circuit
Rotor copper loss
128
4.15 Induction Motor losses and efficiency

Figure below summarizes losses in induction motors,
Figure 4.14: Different losses in Induction motor
129
130
131
4.16 Torque equation For a induction Motor
Under normal conditions, the supply voltage is usually constant, hence equation above becomes:
132
Remember this equation already derived

previously
133
134
135
136
4.17 Relationship between, torque and rotor Power Factor

It has been shown that, in case of DC motor, the torque Ta is propotional to the product of
armature current and flux per pole Ia (Ta Ia ). Similarly in the case of induction motor, the
torque is also propotional to the product of rotor current (armature) and flux pole. However there
is one more factor that has to be considered, i.e. the power factor of the rotor. Therefore
T IrCos or T= K IrCos, where k is constant
Where Ir =rotor current at stand stiil,= angle between rotor current and rotor EMF
Form this expression T= K IrCos we can conclude that
When the phase angle increases, cos decreases, hence torque will also decrease.
Conclusively, Torques is directly propotional to the power factor
4.18 Starting torque of three phase induction Motor
Starting torque is the torque developed by the motor at the instant of starting. In some cases, it is
greater than the normal running torque. Where in some other cases is somewhat less
Let E2 = EMF per phase of a rotor, at stand still
R2 = Rotor resistance per phase
X2 = Rotor reactance per phase at standstill
Z2 = Rotor impedance per phase at stand still= Z 2 R2 X 2
Z 2 R2 X 2
I2
E2
Z2
E2
R2 2 X 2 2
Power factor cos 2
R2
Z2
R2
R2 X 2 2
2
But standstill torque, starting torque is given by = T k1E2 I 2 cos 2
T k1 E2 I 2 cos 2
T k1 E2 x
T
E2
R2 2 X 2
R2
R2 X 2 2
k1 E2 2 R2
R2 2 X 2 2
137
but , k1
3
2 ns
ns is synchronous speed in rps

4.19 Starting torque of a squirrel cage rotor
The resistance of a squirrel cage motor is fixed, and small as compared to its reactance, which is
very large especially at the start, because at stand still, the frequency of the rotor current is equal
to the supply frequency
In this case, the starting current I2 of the rotor , though very large in magnitude lags by a very
large angle behind E2 , with the resultant that the starting torque is very poor. The starting
torque is about 1.5 times full load torque though the starting current I2 is about 5-7 times
full loads current. Hence squirrel cage Motor is not usefully where the motor has to start
against heavy loads
4.20 Starting torque of a slip ring motor (Phase wound Motor)
Starting torque of this motor is increased by improving its power factor by adding external
resistance, in the rotor circuit from the star connected rheostat, the rheostat resistance being
progressively cut out as the motor gathers speed
Additional external resistance, however increases the rotor impedance, and so reduces the rotor
current. At first the effect of improved power factor predominates the current decreasing effect
of impedance,; hence starting torque is increased
But after certain point, the effect of increased impedance, predominates the effect of improved
power factor and so the torque start decreasing
4.21 Induction motor torque-speed characteristics
From Problem 10, parts (c) and (g), it is seen that the normal starting torque may be less than the
full load torque. Also, from Problem 10, parts (e) and (f), it is seen that the speed at which
maximum torque occurs is determined by the value of the rotor resistance. At synchronous
Speed, slips s=0 and torque is zero. From these observations, the torque speed and torque-slip
characteristics of an induction motor are as shown in Figure below
138
Figure 4.15: Induction Motor Torque speed characteristics

The rotor resistance of an induction motor is usually small compared with its reactance, so that
maximum torque occurs at a high speed, typically about 80% of synchronous speed.
Curve P, in Figure above, is a typical characteristic for an induction motor. The curve P cuts the
full-load torque line at point X, showing that at full load the slip is about 45%.
The normal operating conditions are between 0 and X, thus it can be seen that for normal
operation the speed variation with load is quite small the induction motor is an almost
constant speed machine.
If maximum torque is required at starting then a high resistance rotor is necessary, which gives
characteristic Q in Figure above
However, as can be seen, the motor has a full load slip of over 30%, which results in a drop in
efficiency. Also such a motor has a large speed variation with variations of load. Curves R and S
of Figure above are characteristics for values of rotor resistances between those of P and Q.
Better starting torque than for curve P is obtained, but with lower efficiency and with speed
variations under operating conditions.
139
4.21 Speed torque characteristics of a three phase induction motors

Redrawing the speed-torque characteristic between 0 and X gives the characteristic shown in
Figure below, which is similar to a DC shunt motor
4.22 Squirrel cage induction motor characteristics

This would normally follow characteristic P. This type of machine is highly efficient and about
constant-speed under normal running conditions. However it has a poor starting torque and must
be started off-load or very lightly loaded. Consider the graph below
Figure 4.16: Squirrel cage induction motor characteristics
140
Also, on starting, the current can be four or five times the normal full, load current, due to the
motor acting like a transformer with secondary short circuited
4.23 Wound rotor induction motor characteristics
A wound-rotor induction motor would follow characteristic P when the slip-rings are shortcircuited, which is the normal running condition. However, the slip-rings allow for the addition
of resistance to the rotor circuit externally and, as a result, for starting, the motor can have a
characteristic similar to curve Q shown in the previous figure and the high starting current
experienced by the cage induction motor can be overcome.
In general, for three-phase induction motors, the power factor is usually between about 0.8 and
0.9 lagging, and the full load efficiency is usually about 8090%.
From equation below, it is seen that torque is proportional to the square of the supply voltage.
Any voltage variations therefore would seriously affect the induction motor performance
4.24 Starting methods for induction motor

Squirrel-cage rotor
i.
Direct-on-line starting
With this method, starting current is high and may cause interference with supplies to other
consumers.
ii.
Auto transformer starting
With this method, an auto transformer is used to reduce the stator voltage, E1, and thus the
starting current, see the figure below
141
However, the starting torque is seriously reduced, because Torque is propotional to the square of
a voltage, therefore the voltage is reduced only sufficiently to give the required reduction of the
starting current. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure below
Figure 4.17 :Starting induction motor by Auto transformer

A double-throw switch connects the auto transformer in circuit for starting, and when the motor
is up to speed the switch is moved to the run position which connects the supply directly to the
motor.
iii.
Star-delta starting
With this method, for starting, the connections to the stator phase winding are star-connected, so
that the voltage across each phase winding is 1/ 3 (i.e. 0.577) of the line voltage. For running,
the windings are switched to delta-connection. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure below
This method of starting is less expensive than by auto transformer.
Figure 4.18 : Starting induction Motor by star delta
142
4.25 Three Phase Synchronous Motor

As the name suggests Synchronous motors are capable of running at constant speed irrespective
of the load acting on them. Unlike induction motors where speed of the motor depends upon the
torque acting on them, synchronous motors have got constant speed-torque characteristics.
Synchronous motors have got higher efficiency (electrical to mechanical power conversion ratio)
than its counterparts. Its efficiency ranges from 90 92%.
4.26 The advantages of the wound rotor motor compared with the cage type
i. Have a much higher starting torque
ii.
have a much lower starting current
iii. Have a means of varying speed by use of external rotor resistance.
4.27 Construction of three phase Synchronous Motor
The construction of a synchronous motor (with salient pole rotor) is as shown in the figure
below Just like any other motor; it consists of a stator and a rotor.
Stator: Revolving Magnetic Field
The stator core is constructed with thin silicon lamination and insulated by a surface coating, to
minimize the eddy current and hysteresis losses. The stator has axial slots inside, in which
three phase stator winding is placed. The stator is wound with a three phase winding for a
specific number of poles equal to the rotor poles.
The field coil of stator is excited by a 3 phase AC supply. This will produce a revolving
magnetic field (RMF), which rotates at synchronous speed.
Figure 4.19: Stator for synchronous Motor
143
Rotor: Constant Magnetic field

Rotor is excited by a D.C power supply, magnetic field produced around the rotor coil by DC
excitation is shown above. It is clear that the rotor acts like a permanent magnet due to such
magnetic field. Alternatively rotor can also be made of permanent magnet.
The rotor in synchronous motors is mostly of salient pole type. DC supply is given to the rotor
winding via slip-rings. The direct current excites the rotor winding and creates electromagnetic
poles. In some cases permanent magnets can also be used. The figure above illustrates the
construction of a synchronous motor very briefly.
4.28 Working of principle synchronous motor
Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine i.e. two electrical inputs are provided to it. Its
stator winding which consists of a 3 phase winding is provided with 3 phase supply and rotor is
provided with DC supply. The 3 phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase
rotating magnetic flux. The rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux
When a 3 phase electric conductors are placed in a certain geometrical positions (In certain angle
from one another) there is an electrical field generate. Now the rotating magnetic field rotates at
a certain speed, that speed is called synchronous speed. Now if an electromagnet (rotor magnetic
field ) is present in this rotating magnetic field, the electromagnet is magnetically locked with
this rotating magnetic field and rotates with same speed of rotating field. Synchronous motors is
called so because the speed of the rotor of this motor is same as the rotating magnetic field
It is basically a fixed speed motor because it has only one speed, which is synchronous speed and
therefore no intermediate speed is there or in other words its in synchronism with the supply
frequency. Synchronous speed is given by
4.29 Main Features of Synchronous Motors

Synchronous motors are inherently not self-starting. They require some external means to bring
their speed close to synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
At a particular instant rotor and stator poles might be of same polarity (N-N or S-S) causing
repulsive force on rotor and the very next second it will be N-S causing attractive force. But due
to inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due to attractive or repulsive force and
remain in standstill condition. Hence it is not self-starting.
144
To overcome this inertia, rotor is initially fed some mechanical input which rotates it in
same direction as magnetic field to a speed very close to synchronous speed. After some
time magnetic locking occurs and the synchronous motor rotates in synchronism with the
frequency.
1. The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence for
constant supply frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective of load
condition
2. This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical power factor.
This makes it being used in electrical power factor improvement.
3. The only way to change its speed is to change its supply frequency. (As Ns = 120f / P)
4.30 Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motors are mechanically coupled with another motor. It could be either 3 phase
induction motor or DC shunt motor. DC excitation is not fed initially. It is rotated at speed very
close to its synchronous speed and after that DC excitation is given. After some time when
magnetic locking takes place supply to the external motor is cut off.
Damper winding : In case, synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional winding is
placed in rotor pole face. Initially when rotor is standstill, relative speed between damper
winding and rotating air gap flux in large and an e.m.f is induced in it which produces the
required starting torque. As speed approaches synchronous speed, e.m.f and torque is reduced
and finally when magnetic locking takes place, torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case
synchronous is first run as three phase induction motor using additional winding and finally it is
synchronized with the frequency
145
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0Transformers
A transformer is a device which uses the phenomenon of mutual induction, to change the values
of alternating voltages and currents. In fact, one of the main advantages of AC transmission and
distribution is the ease with which an alternating voltage can be increased or decreased by
transformers. Losses in transformers are generally low and thus efficiency is high. Being static
they have a long life and are very stable.
A transformer is represented in Figure below as consisting of two electrical circuits linked by a
common ferromagnetic core. One coil is termed the primary winding which is connected to the
supply of electricity, and the other the secondary winding, which may be connected to a load. A
circuit diagram symbol for a transformer is shown in Figure b.
Figure 5.1 : Transformer Construction

5.1 Construction Of transformers
Simple element of transformer consists of two coils, having mutual inductance, and the
laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other, and the steel core. Other
necessary parts are
Suitable containers for the assembled core and windings

Suitable medium or material for insulating the core and its windings form its container
Suitable bushings , either of porcelain , oiled field or capacitor type for insulating and
bringing out the terminals of winding from the tank
Transformer Core
Transformer core, is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a
continuous magnetic path , with a minimum of air gap included. The steel used is of high silicon
content
146
Eddy current in transformer is minimized by the use of laminated steel sheet, being insulated
from each other by a light coat of core plate vanish or by an oxide layer on the surface
5.2 Categories of transformer basing on the construction
Constructionally, transformers are of two general categories, distinguished form each other ,
merely by the manner in which primary and secondary coil are placed around the laminated core
i.
Core type transformers

In this type, the windings surround the considerable part of the core
Figure 5.2: Core type Transformer

ii.
Shell type transformers

In this type, the core surrounds the considerable part of the winding coil
Figure 5.3 : Shell type Transformer

Shell type transformers are mostly applied in high voltage transformers
147
5.3 Elementary theory of ideal transformers

Consider an ideal transformers (lossless transformers), Whose primary winding is connected to
sinusoidal voltage V1 , with primary number of turns N1 and It draws primary current I1 .
Figure 5.4 : Structure of transformer

The secondary winding being connected to the Load, with secondary voltage of V2, secondary
current flowing I2 and number of turns in the secondary winding be N2 .
As you can see above, voltage applied in the primary windings, is an alternative voltage, whose
magnitude changes with time, generating magnetic field, that results to magnetic flux , these
magnetic flux also will be changing with respect to time, as the flux travel through iron core to
the secondary winding (indicated as dashed line). When they reach secondary windings, it also
cuts the secondary winding, these results into production of an induced EMF in the secondary
which is propotional to the number of turns
Experimentally, it can be shown that, the induced EMF in both winding (primary and
secondary), is propotional to the number of turns I.e.
148
primary winding
V1 N1 , or ,V p N p
V1 kN1............................................(i )
Secondary winding
V2 N 2 , or ,Vs N s
V2 kN 2 .........................................(ii )
Divide, i / ii
V1 kN1
V2 kN 2
V1 N1
V2 N 2
Note that N1 /N2 is called turns ratio

V1 /V2 =voltage ratio
Since we have assumed that the Transformer is ideal, i.e. Has no Loss, then we can say
that
Input power=output Power
V1 I1 V2 I 2
V1 I 2
V 2 I1
But Remember that

V1 N1
, therefore
V2 N 2
V1 N1 I 2
V2 N 2 I1
Generally we can say that

Vp N p I s
Vs N s I p
This equation, is called equation of an Ideal transformer
149
150
151
5.4 Transformer no-load phasor diagram

The core flux is common to both primary and secondary windings in a transformer and is thus
taken as the reference phasor in a phasor diagram. On no-load the primary winding takes a small
no-load current I0 and since, with losses neglected, the primary winding is a pure inductor, this
current lags the applied voltage V1 by 90. Consider the phasor diagram below
Figure 5.5: Transformer no-load phasor diagram

152
In the phasor diagram assuming no losses, shown in Figure above, current I0 produces the
flux and is drawn in phase with the flux. The primary induced e.m.f. E1 is in phase
opposition to V1 (by Lenzs law) and is shown 180 out of phase with V1 and equal in
magnitude.
The secondary induced e.m.f. is shown for a 2:1 turns ratio transformer.
A no-load phasor diagram for a practical transformer is shown in Figure below If current
flows then losses will occur. When losses are considered then the no-load current I0 is the
phasor sum of two components
i.
ii.
IM , the magnetizing component, in phase with the flux,

IC , the core loss component (supplying the hysteresis and eddy current losses)
No-load current,
153
The no-load phasor diagram is shown in Figure Below
154
5.5 Equivalent circuit of a transformer

Figure below shows an equivalent circuit of a transformer. R1 and R2 represent the resistances of
the primary and secondary windings and X1 and X2 represent the reactances of the primary and
secondary windings, due to leakage flux.
Figure 5.6 : Equivalent circuit of a transformer
155
The core losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents are allowed for by resistance R which
takes a current Ic, the core loss component of the primary current. Reactance X takes the
magnetizing component IM.
In a simplified equivalent circuit shown in Figure below, R and X are omitted since the
no-load current I0 is normally only about 35% of the full load primary current. It is
often convenient to assume that all of the resistance and reactance as being on one side of
the transformer. Resistance R2 in Figure below can be replaced by inserting an additional
resistance R 2 in the primary circuit such that the power absorbed
Figure 5.7 : Simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer
By similar reasoning, the equivalent reactance in the primary circuit is given by
The equivalent impedance Ze of the primary and secondary windings referred to the
primary is given by
156
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is shown below
Solution
a) from equivalent circuit resistance given by
157
b) From equivalent circuit reactances given by
c) From equivalent circuit impedances given by
d) Also from equation already shown above
5.6 Transformer regulation

When the secondary winding of the transformer is loaded, the Secondary voltage VS falls .When
Power factor of the transformer decreases, this voltage (Secondary voltage), increases. This
tendency of a secondary voltage VS to change when either secondary winding is loaded or when
the power factor of the transformer changes is called TRANSFOMER REGULATION
TRANSFOMER REGULATION: Is the tendency of a secondary voltage VS to change when
either secondary winding is loaded or when the power factor of the transformer changes.
Mathematically transformer Regulation may be defined as
Re gulation
E2 V2
x100%
E2
Where E2 is the secondary voltage before connecting loadV2 is the secondary voltage after
connecting the load
158
Example 1:
The 5KVA, 200/400V, single phase transformer has a secondary terminal voltage of 387.6V
when loaded. Determine the regulation of the transformer
Solution
Re gulation
E2 V2
x100%,Where, E2 400V ,V2 387.6V
E2
400 387.6
x100%
400
12.4
Re gulation
x100%
400
Re gulation 3.1%
Re gulation
Example 2:
The open circuit voltage of a transformer is 240V.If the percentage regulation of the transformer
is 2.5%.determine the load Voltage at which the Transformer operates
Solution
E V
Re gulation 2 2 x100%
E2
Re g 2.5%, E2 240V ,V2 ?

240 V2
x100%
240
2.5 240 V2
100
240
240 V2
0.025
240
240 V2 6
2.5%
V2 240 6
V2 234V
159
5.7 Transformer Regulation

As the transformer is loaded, the secondary terminal voltage falls (for a lagging power factor).
Hence to keep output voltage constant, primary voltage must be increased. The rise in primary
voltage required to maintain rated output voltage from no load to full load at a given power
factor expressed as a percentage of the rated primary voltage, gives the regulation of the
transformer
Suppose, primary voltage has to be raised from its rated value V1 to V1 then
%reg
V '1 V1
x100
V1
160
161
162
5.8 Transformer losses and efficiency

There are broadly two sources of losses in transformers on load, these being copper losses and
iron losses.
a) Copper losses are variable and result in a heating of the conductors, due to the fact that
they possess resistance. If R1 and R2 are the primary and secondary winding resistances
then the total copper loss is given by
b) Iron losses are constant for a given value of frequency and flux density and are of two
types hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
i.
Hysteresis loss is the heating of the core as a result of the internal molecular
structure reversals which occur as the magnetic flux alternates. The loss is
proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop and thus low loss nickel iron alloys
are used for the core since their hysteresis loops have small areas
ii.
Eddy current loss is the heating of the core due to e.m.f.s being induced not
only in the transformer windings but also in the core. These induced e.m.f.s set
up circulating currents, called eddy currents. Owing to the low resistance of the
core, eddy currents can be quite considerable and can cause a large power loss
and excessive heating of the core.
5.9 Methods of Reducing eddy currents
Eddy current losses can be reduced by increasing the resistivity of the core material or,
more usually,
By laminating the core (i.e., splitting it into layers or leaves) when very thin layers of
insulating material can be inserted between each pair of laminations. This increases the
resistance of the eddy current path, and reduces the value of the eddy current.
And is usually expressed as a percentage. It is not uncommon for power transformers to have
efficiencies of between 95% and 98%.
163
164
165
166
5.10 Maximum efficiency of Transformer

It may be shown that the efficiency of a transformer is a maximum when the variable copper loss
given by
Is equal to the constant iron losses.
167
5.11 Transformer Test

Transformer Test is very important in determining four main parameters of the transformer ,
These parameters are equivalent resistance of the transformers R01 referred to as primary or
secondary resistance R02 , the equivalent leakage reactance X01 as also referred to as primary or
secondary reactance X02 ,The core loss conductance G0 or resistance R0 and the magnetizing
susceptance B0 or reactance X0 .
5.12 Types of Transformer Tests
i. Open circuit tests
ii. Short circuit Test
These Tests are very economical and convenient because they furnish they information required
without actually loading the transformer
i.
Open circuit or no load tests
The purpose of this test is to determine no load loss or core Loss and no load I0 , which is helpful
in finding X0 and R0 .Consider the figure below
Figure 5.8 : Open circuit or No load test

One winding of the transformer whichever is convenient , but usually high voltage winding is
left opened and the other is connected to its supply of normal voltage and frequency
168
A wattmeter W, voltmeter V, and an Ammeter A, are connected in the low voltage winding i.e.
primary winding in this case .
With normal voltage applied to the primary , normal flux will be set up in the core, hence normal
iron losses will occur which are recorded by the wattmeter . As the primary no load current I0 as
measured by an Ammeter, is small , usually 2 to 10% of the rated load current , copper losses is
negligibly small in primary and NIL in secondary (Because of open circuit). Hence Wattmeter
reading represent practically the core loss under no load condition
It should be noted that since I0 is itself very small , the pressure coils of the wattmeter and the
voltmeter are connected such that the current in them doesnt pass through the current coil of the
wattmeter
Sometimes high resistance voltmeter is connected across the secondary. The reading of the
voltmeter gives induced EMF in the secondary winding. This helps to find the Transformation
ratio K
The no vector diagram is shown in the figure below
If W, is the Wattmeter reading then we can say that
Or since, the current is practically all exciting current, when the transformer is on no load
169
And as the voltage drop in primary leakage impedance is small , hence the exciting admittance
Y0 of the transformer is given by
ii.
Short circuit Test or Impedance Test

This is an economical Method of determining the following
Equivalent impedance (Z01 and Z02 ), leakage Reactance (X01 and X02 ), and Total
resistance (R01 and R02 ) of the transformers as referred to the winding in which
the measuring instrument are placed
170
Copper loss at full load at any desired load. This loss is used to calculate
efficiency of the transformer
Knowing Z01 and Z02 , the total voltage drop in the transformer as referred to
primary or secondary can be calculated and hence Regulation of the transformer
determined
In this test, one winding usually , the low voltage winding, is solidly short circuited
by a thick conductor (Or through an Ammeter which may serve the additional
purpose of indicating the rated load current ) , as shown in figure below
Figure 5.9 : Short circuit Test

A low Voltage Usually (5 to 10 % of the normal primary voltage) at a correct frequency (though
copper losses is not essential ), is applied to the primary and is cautiously increased till full load
current are flowing both in primary and secondary (as indicated by the respective ammeters)
Since, in this test, the applied voltage is a small percentage of the normal voltage, the mutual flux
produced is also in small percentage of its normal value. Hence core losses are very small,
with the result that the wattmeter readings represent the full load copper loss or I2R loss for the
whole transformer, i.e. both primary copper loss and secondary copper loss.
171
The equivalent circuit of the transformer under short circuit condition is shown in figure below
Figure 5.10 : Equivalent circuit of a transformer

If VSC is the voltage required to circulate the rated load current then Z 01
VSC
I1
The figure below, shows the equivalent circuit vector diagram for the short circuit test.
It is obvious that, the entire voltage VSC is consumed in the impedance drop of the two winding
172
If R1 can be measured, then knowing R01 , we can find R '2 R01 R1 , the impedance triangle can
then be divided into appropriate equivalent triangles for primary and secondary as shown in the
previous figure (b)
173
As shown in the figure below, these values refers to the primary, i.e. low voltage side
Form S.C test

It may be noted that, in this test, instrument have been placed in the secondary , i.e. high voltage
winding, where the low voltage winding , i.e. primary winding, has been shorted, Now as shown
below
174
175
Use the approximate equivalent circuit of the figure shown below
Figure 5.11: equivalent circuit diagram

Then, we have
As seen in figure below
176
5.13 Why Transformer rating is in KVA?

As seen, copper loss of the transformer, depends on current and iron loss on voltage. Hence total
transformer loss depends on Volt-Ampere (VA) and not on phase angle between voltage and
current, i.e. it is independent of load power-factor. That is why rating of transformer is in KVA
instead of KW
177
5.14 Autotransformers
It is a transformer with only one winding. Part of this being common to both primary and
secondary. Obviously form this transformer, primary winding and secondary windings are not
electrically isolated from each other as in the case for a 2 winding transformer
But its theory of operation is the same as that of a 2 winding transformer
5.15 Advantages of Auto-transformer compared to double wound transformer
Because of only one winding, then it uses less copper and its cheaper
It is used where the transformation ration differs from unity
5.16 Types of Autotransformers
Basically there are two type of Autotransformers
Step down Autotransformer
The figure below show construction of a step down Autotransformer
Figure 5.12 : Step down Transformer

As shown above, AB is a primary winding with N1 turns, and BC is a secondary windings
with N2 turns
178
Step Up Autotransformer
Figure 5.13: Step Up transformer

Neglecting the Iron losses and no load current, it can be shown that
179
Reference
1) Theraja A.K and Theraja B.L. (2005). A text book of electrical technology, Volume II, S
Chand.
2) Theraja A.K and Theraja B.L.(2004). Electrical Power Transmission and distribution,
Volume III, S Chand
3) Theraja A.K and Theraja B.L.(2002). A text book of electrical technology, Volume I, S
Chand
4) John B. (2003).Electrical circuit theory and technology, Second Edition, Great Britain.
180

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Table of Contents

2.16 Fuse advantages ................................................................................................................ 24

3.6 Classification of DC Machine ............................................................................................. 56

3.37 Armature Reaction .......................................................................................................... 101

4.25 Three Phase Synchronous Motor .................................................................................... 143

Structure of dynamometer wattmeter

Figure 1.1: Structure of Dynamometer

Figure 1.2: Wattmeter in single phase source

1.3 Methods for measuring a 3 phase power with wattmeter

Figure 1.3: Three wattmeter method

b. measurement of a three phase power by two wattmeters

Figure 1.4: Two wattmeter Method

For a delta connected Loads

When the Delta connected load, the diagram is shown in below

Figure 1.5: Two wattmeter method in Delta circuit

1.4 Phase angle of three phase angle by 2-wattmeter

Figure 1.6: Phase angle by 2 wattmeter method

Again, proceed in the following manner

1.5 Errors in Wattmeter reading due to connections

Figure 1.7: Voltage coil on the supply side

Now, from above circuit connection

phase, difference, between,V , and , I , in, the, current , coil

2. Pressure coil/voltage coil on the load side

Figure 1.8: Voltage coil on the load side

phase, angle, between, V & I1

But form the phasor diagram, we can see that

PT Power in load power in voltage coil circuit

1.6 Other sources of errors in the wattmeter

Figure 1.9: Inductance of both voltage and current coils

1.7 Specialized instrument for testing electrical installation

Continuity test instrument

Insulation resistance test instrument

Circuit between 0V50V a.c

Circuit between 50V500V a.c

Safe Isolation must be done before commencing the test

Figure 1.10: Complete earth loop path

A residual-current device (RCD), or residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) is an

2.2 Advantages of using AC power in Transmission

Figure 2.2 : Domestic Houses connected to AC power

SINGLE LINE PHASE DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL THREE PHASE POWER SYSTEM

2.4 Types of Electrical power Distribution System

Figure 2.4 Radial Electrical Power Distributions

Figure 2.5: Closed Ring Electrical Power Supply distribution

Figure 2.6: Distribution Transformer

Figure 2.7: Three wires-three phase AC systems

Figure 2.8: Four wires-three phase AC systems

Electrical isolators/ Disconnectors

Switch fuse/ Fuse Cutout

Oil Circuit Breaker

Air circuit breakers

Working Principle of Air Circuit Breaker

Vacuum Circuit Breaker

Fuse is cheapest type of protection in an electrical circuit

2.17 Fuse Disadvantages

2.18 Fusing factor

2.21 Operation Of A relay

Figure 2.9: Relay system

2.24 Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) protection relays

Figure 2.10: IDMT protection relay