MEC 112 Lectures 20182019
MEC 112 Lectures 20182019
MEC 112 Lectures 20182019
WEEK ONE (4 – 5)
Learning Objectives
3.1 Perform simple measuring exercises using steel rules,
Vernier calipers and micrometers.
3.2 Use dial indicators to
(i) Set up job jobs on the lathe
(ii) Roundness testing etc.
3.3 Carry out exercises involving flatness, squareness,
Straightness and surface finish test.
3.4 Perform taper measurement on jobs using Vernier protractor and sine bars.
3.5 Inspect jobs using simple comparators
involve changing the independent variable to determine the level at which a certain response
occurs: in this case, the test result is the independent variable. There are two types of test methods
in mechanical testing, namely destructive and non-destructive testing methods. In the latter
method, the sample under test regains its initial mechanical properties after test but the reverse is
the case with the former. Non-destructive tests examples are magnetic particle test, ultrasonic and
radiographic. Equipment and methods used in mechanical testing includes but not limited to;
Universal Testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, used to test the tensile strength
and compressive strength of materials etc.
A work piece, system, process, equipment or tool can be tested to ascertain various properties to
define its state for desirability for a particular purpose. Some variables or properties, which can be
tested for include but not limited to Strength, hardness, roughness etc. Strength is defined as the
ability to withstand an applied load without failure. Mechanical systems and parts often come
under varying applied load during operation. In order to increase effectiveness, cost control,
durability and purposeful operation, the degree to which a system, structure or part satisfies
condition should be known. Testing provides these required information and more on the state of
the equipment, tools, system, etc. Hardness, on the other hand, is defined as the ability to resist
deformation. But even though the two are different, they are also directly related. Increase one and
the other follows suit. The yield strength is the point at which elastic deformation gives way to
plastic deformation. Deformation in the plastic range is non-linear, and is described by the stress-
strain curve. This response produces the observed properties of scratch and indentation.
3.13 The principle and construction of Micrometer Screw gauge
The Micrometer screw gauge is slightly different from the outside micrometer in that the spindle
is pointed and the anvil end has the form of the screw to be measured. They are used to measure
the screw thread pitch diameter to 0.01 accuracy. The micrometer is so called because it uses a
calibrated screw in its working operation for precise measurements. The accuracy of the
micrometer screw gauge is 0.01 and could be up to 0.001. This is very high accuracy compared to
the Vernier caliper, which has accuracy of 0.02. Most of the engineering works have to require
more precession. So micrometer screw gauge often times referred to as the screw gauge is the
suitable instrument that achieves such required accuracy. Micrometer Pitch is defined as "the
distance on the linear scale through which the circular scale moves during one revolution, either
clockwise or anticlockwise
thimble has a 50 number division. It uses the extremes for measurement. The instrument is placed
inside the work piece to be measured and the thimble advanced or withdrawn so that the ends
touches the dimension to be measured
Inside Micrometer
For wide or higher range of dimensions the inside micrometer is used alongside extension rods
ii) Depth Micrometer
The depth micrometer has same principle with the outside micrometer but with a based spindle for
taking the reading of holes, depths and recesses. The sleeve of micrometer depth gauge is
graduated in reverse form; 9, 8, 7, 6… that is the sleeve zero lapse with the thimble zero when the
instrument is fully open and as the sleeve length reduces during measuring graduation increases.
The sleeve zero line should line up with the zero on the thimble scale. If they are not aligned,
position the tip of the calibration wrench in the calibration wrench hole on the sleeve and rotate
the sleeve to achieve alignment with the thimble. To make an actual measurement,
first choose the measurement rod or the spindle suitable for the depth to be measured from the six
interchangeable extension rods supplied with the gauge. Clean the mounting surfaces of the spindle
or the measurement rod and the rod-receiving shaft. Insert and rotate the measurement rod into the
rod-receiving shaft to seat it completely. Ensure that the head or micrometer base is flush on the
top reference surface. Once the spindle or the measurement rod touches the base of the work piece
to be measured hold the base firmly on the reference surface, rotate the thimble ratchet clockwise
until it “clicks” three times. Read the depth measurement.
Depth micrometer
3.14 Principle and Construction of Vernier Calipers.
Vernier Caliper is a device which is used to measure small lengths or distance such as diameter of
a cylinder or sphere. It is a precision measurement instrument used to measure both internal and
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external diameters to an accuracy of 0.02mm as hinted earlier with the help of Vernier caliper we
can calculate correctly up to 1/1000th of centimeter or 0.1mm. A Vernier caliper consist of a
rectangular steel bar whose one side is graduated in centimeters. The working principle of Vernier
calipers based its measurement accuracy on the use of two scales slightly different in size. One of
the scale is the main scale engraved in the rectangular frame or beam of the instrument and the
other is the Vernier scale sliding along the main scale. It is a subsidiary scale that indicates where
the measurement lies in between two of the graduations on the main scale.
The Vernier scale is constructed so that it is spaced at a constant fraction of the fixed main scale.
So for a decimal measuring device each mark on the Vernier is spaced nine tenths of those on the
main scale. If you put the two scales together with zero points aligned, the first mark on the Vernier
scale is one tenth short of the first main scale mark, the second two tenths short, and so on up to
the ninth mark—which is misaligned by nine tenths. Only when a full ten marks are counted is
there alignment, because the tenth mark is ten tenths—a whole main scale unit short, and therefore
aligns with the ninth mark on the main scale
a) Working principle of Vernier Scale
The difference between the value of one main scale division and the number of Vernier scale
division is known as
i) Least count of the Vernier. It is also known as Vernier constant.
Mathematically equals to = smallest division on the main scale = 0.5 = 0.02
Number of division on the Vernier scale 25
Vernier scale
.
Vernier Height Gauge
The main scale of a Vernier height gauge is stationary while the slider moves up and down. The
Vernier scale mounted on the slider gives readings up to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
iii) The Vernier gear tooth Caliper.
This is a type vertical and horizontal scale combined in a piece used to measure the tooth thickness
at the pitch line and the chordal addendum (the height from top of the gear tooth to the chord). The
vertical scale and the horizontal are adjusted independently by adjusting the screw on each scale.
The vertical scale measure the height of the gear tooth while the horizontal measures the width all
at the pitch diameter of the gear. This scale is only used to verify the
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Comparator
a) The Dial and lever Type Mechanical Comparators
There are varying types of mechanical comparators but only the dial and level type will be treated
in this work. The dial type mechanical comparators is the simplest and common type of mechanical
comparator. Magnification is by mechanical systems, gears, plunger or spindle, rack and spring
that work together to indicate the deviations of a test specimen from the standard required. The
dial indicator is used for: Determining the error in surfaces, say alignment, Parallelism, squareness
geometrical forms, taper, roundness, etc. Practical Application of this mechanical type of
comparators include: To check the parallelism of shaping machine ram with surface, the trueness
of milling machine arbor (a shaft on which a machining tool is mounted), to check the alignment
of lathe machine centers by using a test bar between centers.
The level type mechanical comparator transmits deviations by the movement of a level, spring
system that is read off from the indicator. A compresion spring attached to the system reduces
excess presure. The Principle of operation of lever type comparator is shown in the figure below.
A slip gauge of standard dimension is placed on the anvil surface, below the plunger and the pointer
set to zero. Now, place the component to be measured on the anvil surface below plunger by
removing the pile of slip gauges. If there is any difference in size, the plunger moves up and down.
These plunger movements are magnified, by lever and deflect the pointer on a graduated scale.
A compression spring limits the measuring pressure. The magnification achieved depends upon
the length of lever both side of the pivot.
Mechanical comparators actuate by gears, levers, rack and pinion etc.; all of these are subjected
to wear and friction that affect the accuracy and useful life of the instrument
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Pneumatic comparators
d) Optical type Comparators
These comparators types uses a fundamental optical law. There is no pure optical comparator but
large magnification is obtained by use of optical principle in optical comparators. An image is
projected on to a curved graduated scale in place of a pointer to indicate the required measurement.
A tilt in an incident ray on a mirror caused by the movement of the measuring arm increases the
reflected ray by two, which is recorded as a measuring image on the screen. A mechanical
instrument also contributes quite a lot for the overall magnification. Hence sometimes it is referred
as ‘Mech-optical comparator’. Magnification in case of optical comparators is obtained with the
help of light beams which has an advantage of being straight and weightless. Optical comparators
have their own built in light source.
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Initially ∠ACN =∠NCO in optical comparators as can be seen in the figure (a) below. Now, if the
mirror is tilted through an angle a, by the movement of the measuring plunger, the reflected ray of
light has moved through an angle of 2a. Magnification: The magnification of mech - optical
comparator is defined as the ratio between distance moved by the indicating pointer and the
displacement of plunger. The Magnification of optical comparators is usually high 1000:1, with
measuring range ±0.075 mm
Mathematically Total magnification = mechanical magnification * Optical magnification
=a
c
Optical comparators have usually a few moving linkage and hence are not subjected to wear tear,
and much friction and give high accuracy. A beam of light is used for magnification which has no
inertia and it is free from Parallax error. Notwithstanding, Optical comparators are costly than
other types like mechanical with a large size too. Same power source disadvantage as with
electrical comparators. There is a possibility of inaccuracy in measurement due to heating from
source of light and for convenience dark room is required to take readings easily and properly.
v. If reading is not 0, move dial indicator away from stock, and use a lead hammer to tap
part towards center
vi. Check again with dial indicator to see if reading is zero.
vii. Repeat above process if necessary
b) To check if a surfaced part is centered:
i. Insert parallels into the back of the chuck, then insert part into chuck and tighten
ii. Remove Parallels!
iii. Position dial indicator on the carriage so needle is touching part as shown in picture
iv. Zero the indicator by loosening the bezel's locking knob if your indicator is a traditional
model with a rotating face. Rotate the face of the indicator until the "0" marking aligns
with the dial. Tighten the knob afterward to lock the face in position.
v. Spin chuck by hand and observe any movement of dial
vi. If dial does not read zero, tap high point with lead hammer to set face perpendicular to
axis of rotation and check with dial indicator again.
3.23 Roundness
The dial applies same functional principles in checking the roundness of an object. Roundness is
the measure of the sharpness of a particle's edges and corners. It applies to individual circular cross
sections of a surface of revolution or of a sphere. To measure roundness placed the workpiece on
a V-block and the dial used in the way discussed above to check for deviations. Rotate the part
slowly and carefully by hand, taking care not to disturb the vee-block or gauge stand and making
sure that the part rests on the two arms of the vee block all the time. If the part is truly round, with
negligible irregularity, the pointer of the gauge will not move. If, however, the part is out-of-round
the irregularities will displace the pointer as it contact the plunger and will introduce up and down
movement of the work part on the v block.
only length, i.e. only one dimension. It is the degree of the accuracy of the shortest distance
between two points. Straightness only measures the variance on a straight line. While flatness is
the state of being flat without having pits and mounds or a state of being even. Flatness is related
to a two-dimensional flat surface called a plane in Geometry. A plane such as a board has both
length and breadth, which clearly mark flatness as the variance across a 2D plane. It is a shape
formed by connecting a minimum of three points by straight lines e.g. tringle, square, etc.
Engineer's straight edges are used to check for surfaces that have these properties. These properties
are of great importance in dealing with two surfaces in contact with each other such as on an engine
block and cylinder head. In the block-cylinder head arrangement, design requirement require part
of the head to flush with the other at a certain position in order to achieve a suitable fit and this
can be tested with a straight edge.
Straight edge
3.32 Sine bar
Sine bars are used to check the angle of a tapered piece, flatness of a surface, bevel gears and
locating work in a desired angle. It is made of a hard corrosive resistant steel bar with hardened
identical steel rollers at both stepped ends of the bar. The dimension of the distance between the
centers of these rollers or balls are fixed are usually a whole number (100mm, 200mm etc). The
rollers are in contact with both faces of the stepped bar at both ends. Relief holes are drilled at the
centers of the bar to facilitate handling and reduce body weight of the instrument. The diameters
of the extreme rollers of the sine bar must be equal. The surface of the bar must also be parallel to
the plane containing the center lines of the rollers. It should also have a flat surface. The work
piece to be measured is placed on a surface plate. One side of the bar is placed on the plate over
the tapered work piece under measurement and the other end the sine bar on a slip gauge of height
h. Using sin θ = h/l where l is the center to center distance of the rollers
For a better measurement of the required angle the sine bar in placed on a slip gauge of h and H as
shown in the arrangement below and the calculation done using the right angle theorem. Sine Bar
Limitations include when using a sine bar, the height setting is limited by the gauge block divisions
available (often 0.0001”). This results in an error that may be negligible, or in some cases quite
significant.
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Sine bar
3.33 Surface Finish Test or surface Roughness
Surface roughness often called roughness as a component of surface texture is high frequency,
short wave component of a surface. Roughness is quantified by the deviations in the direction of
the normal vector of a real surface from its ideal form. If these deviations are large, the surface is
rough; if they are small, the surface is smooth. On a turned part, form is the result of errors in the
way the lathe produces the part, commonly known as straightness errors, and waviness is a result
of various vibrations, both in the machine tool and from outside sources. Considerable efforts have
been made to study the influence of surface texture on friction and wear during sliding conditions.
The study showed its importance to the wear service of certain parts that are subject to dry friction,
such as machine-tools bits, stamping dies, threading dies, clutch plates, brake drums, etc. An
instrument, which uses high frequency short-waves signal called roughness tester is used to
quickly and accurately determine the surface texture or surface roughness of a material. A
roughness tester often called SURFTEST shows the measured roughness depth (Rz) as well as the
mean roughness value (Ra) in micrometers or microns (µm). Ra and RMS are both representations
of surface roughness, but each is calculated differently. Ra is calculated as the measured
Roughness Average of a surfaces microscopic peaks and valleys, the arithmetical mean of the
absolute values related to the profile deviation y within the reference length l. It is the arithmetic
mean of the departures of the roughness profile from the mean line. RMS is calculated as the Root
Mean Square of a surfaces measured microscopic peaks and valleys. There are many different
roughness parameters in use, but Ra is by far the most common and universally recognised as the
most used international parameter of roughness. To check for roughness, first the SURFTEST is
calibrated with the standards usually supplied alongside the instrument. Most of the instrument
can store up to ten thousand measurement in its memory card, and has a detachable drive unit with
spc drive that can connect it to spread sheet directly. It can measure from a distance of up to three
meters using a connecting cable. The figure below shows signal display for the roughness average
parameter of a surface. An Optical flat having a cylindrical flat at two sides’ can also be used to
check for roughness. The instrument uses wavelength of a monochromic sodium light incident on
the optical flat when slightly tilted to measure roughness.
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Portable SURTES
3.34 The Vernier bevel protractor
The bevel protractor is made of a beam, graduated disc, a blade, which is connected to swivel plate
(with Vernier scale) by thumb nut and clamp. The bevel protractor is used to establish and test
angles of various shapes to very close tolerances. It reads to 5 minutes or 1/20 o and can be used
completely through 360o. Please recall that a circle has 360 degrees (360o), and can be divided into
three hundred and sixty (360) equal angles. Each equal parts representing a degree is divided into
sixty (60) equal parts called minutes and a minute is sub-divided into sixty (60) equal parts called
seconds.
When the edges of the beam and blade are parallel, a small line on the swivel plate coincides with
the zero line on the graduated disc. Readings are obtained direct from the position of the line on
the Vernier with reference to the graduation value on the disc. Please note: for angles over 90
degrees subtract the number of degrees as indicated on the disc from 180 degrees. This is because,
the disc is graduated from 00 to 900 on both left and right of the zero mark. Now the Vernier scale
too is graduated both to the right and to the left from zero making it possible to measure any
required angle. The readings can be taken either to the right or to the left, according to the direction
in which the zero on the main scale is moved. Each graduation the Vernier scale is 5 minutes less
than two spaces on the main scale. Twenty four spaces on the Vernier scale equal in extreme length
twenty three double degrees. Thus, the difference between the space occupied by two degrees on
a main scale and the space of the Vernier scale is equal to one twenty fourth of two degrees or one
twelfth of one degree (or five minutes). Alternatively, twelve divisions on one side of the Vernier
coincides with twenty three divisions on the main disc, therefore one division on the Vernier equals
to 23/12. So the difference between two division on the main scale and a division the Vernier is 2
- (23/12) = (1/12)0 = 5 minutes. Read off directly from the main scale the number of whole degrees
between 0 on this scale and the 0 of the Vernier scale. Then count, in the same direction, the
number of divisions from the zero on the Vernier scale to a line it coincides with on the main scale;
multiply this number by 5 and the product will be the number of minutes to be added to the whole
number of degrees. For example: Zero on the Vernier scale has moved 28 whole degrees to the
right of the 0 on the main scale and the 3th line on the Vernier scale coincides with a line upon the
main scale as indicated. Multiplying 3 by 5 equals 15;-the number of minutes to be added to the
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whole number of degrees, thus indicating a setting of 28 degrees and 15 minutes. In practice this
multiplications is needless as many of this instrument have Vernier scale graduated in a way that
accounts for it.
Exercises
1. Using a measured rectangular metal or wood bar, saw out the figure in the table above,
measure the dimensions a, b, c and the angles in as shown.
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Metal Finishing
Metal finishing is used to treat the exterior of a metal product by applying a thin complementary
layer either by introduction or by removal to its surface. Varying types of metal finishing processes
can be employed for the same purpose of fine finishing depend on desirability, availability, cost,
purpose etc. Choice in selecting a metal finishing technique suitable for a project should consider
these few helpful things:
Metal hardness: harder metals usually require more intense finishing techniques, like grinding,
or tougher abrasives than those used on softer materials
Production speed: How quickly does the technique apply finish to the product?
Cost-effectiveness: Certain finishing machines (such as vibratory tumblers) can be expensive,
but may compensate for their price by delivering faster cycle rates
Potential for vulcanization.
Some advantages of applying finishing treatment to a metal product are increased durability,
improved aesthetic surface, enhanced electrical conductivity, higher electrical resistance and
chemical resistance, higher tarnish resistance.
Types of Metal Finishing
Metal Plating
Metal Grinding
Metal Vibratory Finishing
Brushed Metal
Sand Blasting
Hot Blackening
Buff Polishing
Powder Coating
Metal Plating
Metal plating machines use a chemical bath to coat or alter the surface of a substrate with a thin
layer of metal, such as nickel. The electroplating method generates an electric current to coat the
substrate, while electrolytic plating employs an autocatalytic process in which the substrate
catalyzes the reaction. Metal plating provides a number of advantages as a finishing process. It can
improve a product’s durability, corrosion resistance, surface friction, and exterior appearance. It is
also a useful option for coating other metals. However, plating machines are generally not suited
for smoothing out surface defects.
Metal Grinding
Grinding machines employ friction advantage, attrition and/or compression to smooth out surfaces.
There are several types of grinding machines designed to deliver different levels of finite
smoothness. For example, a ball-grinding mill is an excellent fine grinder for cement products, but
may not work for more extensive smoothing projects. Most metal grinding machines consist of a
substrate within a rotating drum. Rod mills are used to make metal rods, while semi-autogenous
grinding (SAG) mills and autogenous grinding mills smooth copper, gold, platinum, and silver
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arm, table and drill head, and the machine may be classified into following types; - Plain radial
drilling machine, Semi universal drilling machine, and Universal drilling machine.
desired. Such drilling machines are most widely used and have over wide range of operation (light
to heavy) work.
All of the spindles are fed into the work piece at the same time. This type of drilling machine is
especially used to reproduce the same pattern of holes in a number of identical pieces in a mass
production work located close together.
in ordinary drilling machines and be ordinary drills. It needs machines like deep hole drilling
machine such as gun drilling machines with horizontal axis which are provided with; high spindle,
speed, high rigidity, tool guide, and Pressurized cutting oil for effective cooling, chip removal and
lubrication at the drill tip. Deep hole drilling machines are available with both hard automation
and CNC system. The Multi spindle drilling machines and gang drilling machines types are
generally called special purpose drilling machines. The purposes of these types of drilling
machines vary. Special purpose drilling machines include machines capable of drilling 20 holes at
once or drilling holes as small as 0.01 of an inch.
4.2 Operations on drilling machine
Drilling is a varied terminology that is related to making holes with revolving tools. A hole may
be drilled or bored; awls, gimlets, and augers also produce holes. An awl is the simplest hole
maker, like a needle, it simply pushes material to one side without removing it. Drills, gimlets, and
augers, however, have cutting edges that detach material to leave a hole.
Drilling operation
a) Boring
A drilled hole is ordinarily small and usually made in metal; a bored hole is large and in wood or,
if in metal, is usually made by enlarging a small hole. Drilling usually requires high speed and low
torque (turning force), with little material being removed during each revolution of the tool. Low
speed but high torque are characteristic of boring because the boring tool has a larger radius than
a drill. Boring is simply enlarging a hole that has already been drilled by a single point tool so that
a required or designed specification is achieved.
Boring
b) Counter boring
The machine operation of enlarging the mouth of a drilled hole to set nut head and bolt head
slightly down in a way they will not project above the work piece surface or the surface level is
known as counter boring. Counter boring drill is usually guided by a pilot pin, which fits into the
drilled hole.
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Counter boring
c) Counter sink
It is an operation to bevel the top of a drilled hole to impress a conical seat for a flat head screw.
A flat drill grounded to a specified angle is usually used as a counter sink tool. Fluted countersinks
bits come in several sizes, able to cut conical holes intended to fit screws of varying head
dimensions. A pilot hole is first drilled for the screw, followed by countersinking the hole to allow
a flathead screw to seat flush with the work surface.
Counter sinking
d) Reaming
This is a machine operation of enlarging a drilled hole or a simple hole to required size using a
tool to achieve a smooth finish. The tool referred to as the reamer is not designed to remove much
metal and it operates with very high accuracy. Reamers are turned in a clockwise direction during
operation and when removing from the reamed hole. Usually the reaming allowance is about
0.2mm maximum or 0.05 to 0.1mm only. Reamer possesses several cutting edges on outer
periphery and may be classified as solid reamer and adjustable reamer. There are hand reamers
and machine reamers. They mainly differ with respect to the shank (hand reamer: square, machine
reamer: taper) and to the cutting portion (machine reamers have a shorter lead). Reaming operation
ensure accuracy in size, roundness, smoothness, etc. to already drilled holes. Reamers follow the
pattern of existing drilled holes and will not correct any error previously established during
drilling. It is necessary to ensure that the reamer is square with the axis of the hole to be reamed.
A tap wrench is used to hold the reamer in place inside the drilled hole and reamed while the work
piece is fixed or clamp in a vice. Fluted hand reamers made of cast steel exist with square tangs
that are fixed in the tap wrench. Lubrication, which prolong the tool life can be applied during
reaming operation to avoid overheating and reduce unwanted wear while the reamer is slowly
operated. The reamer should not be used to removes large piece of metal to avoid wearing away
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of the edges and creating inaccurate sized holes. Hand reamers are primarily used for assembly
work to make parts fit better. Their main feature is a long taper lead. This ensures good guidance
in the hole and prevents canting. Hand reamers are non-adjustable or adjustable. Machine reamers
used on lathes are: non-adjustable reamers, arbor-mounted reamers, adjustable reamers, spiral-
fluted reamers and taper reamers
Reaming operation
e) Tapping
Tapping is simply a machine operation of producing internal thread in a work piece hole using a
tool called a tap. The tap is designed and manufactured with a hardened cutting edge to produce
internal screw that will perfectly fit into a designed external thread. Taps come in sets of three to
cut any given size. They are classified as taper, intermediate, and plug. Most taps have squared
ends designed to accommodate the tap wrench and a plain shank. The diameter of the drilled hole
for tapping is often referred to as tapping size calculated as follows;
Tapping size = OD – 2 x DT
DT = PT x 0.64
Note: OD – Outside diameter, DT – Depth of thread, and PT Pitch of Thread.
The tap must be positioned squarely with the tap surface of the work piece, then screwed to produce
thread using a taper tap fixed in a tap wrench for hand tapping operation. Taper taps are often
called "starting" taps because they have more chamfered threads. Chamfer is the angled portion at
the front of the tap which helps it start threading. Lubrication is necessary to produce a fine finish
of the threads. Mineral oil or whale oil could be used as a lubricant. Threading starts once the
squareness of the taper tap is confirmed and should be slightly reversed after every half cut to clear
the threads Once a reduction in resistance is experienced, which means that the drilled hole is
through, it indicates that the tap is cutting a full thread and could be removed from the drilled hole
or tapped hole and finished with a second tap. Taps come in three main styles:
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i) Taper; starts narrow and tapers to full thread width, but they need to be turned farther in order
to form a full thread in a hole. Taper taps have 7 to 10 threads of chamfer
ii) Plug — the most common tap for general purposes. It has a slight taper, but allows for
threading almost to the bottom of a blind hole. Plug taps have 3-5 threads of chamfer
iii) Bottoming — for forming threads in the full length of a hole that has a bottom. It’s
recommended to use a taper or plug tap to form the initial threads. Bottoming taps have 1-2
threads of chamfer
The above is for imperial tap drill size calculation. For Metric tap drill size, the calculation is the
same but with metric units
Mathematically TDS = Major diameter (mm) – Pitch (mm).
Example; find the tap drill size for a 22 – 2.5 mm thread.
Solution D = 22 and pitch = 2.5 so simply do the subtraction, which is 22 – 2.5 = 19.5mm
So TDS = 19.5mm
Taps can be extended using tap extension to thread deep holes that cannot be easily accessible
and extracted using tap extractor.
g) Lapping
The operation of sizing and finishing a hole by removing very small amounts of material by means
of an abrasive is known as lapping. The abrasive material is kept in contact with the sides of a hole
that is to be lapped, by the use of a lapping tool.
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Spot Facing
4.3 GRIND DRILL BITS ACCURATELY
Position the drill in a way that half part of the cutting edge will make horizontal contact with the
grinding wheel of the grinder. Put the face shield in place, switch on the grinder after proper
inspection of the arrangement to ensure safe operation. Carefully grind, making a number of
strokes, grind the other half cutting edge with same number of strokes and measure with a bevel
protractor or any other convenient angle measuring instrument. Repeat process while checking
each closely with few grinding strokes. Once required ground to required angle, softly grind the
point to remove sharp point.
a) Body
The body of the twist drill spiral grooves cut on it. These grooves serve to offer clearance to the
chips formed at the cutting edge. They also permit the cutting fluid to spread to the cutting edges.
b) Shank
It is a part that gets fitted into the drill chuck or sleeve. It might be parallel shank or taper shank.
Smaller diameter drills have straight shank. Morse taper is generally provided for large diameter
tapered drills. The taper shank brings the tang at the end of shank. This fits into a slot in the
machine spindle, sleeve or socket and gives a positive grip.
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c) Neck
It is the undercut portion between the body and the shank. Some details are marked at the neck.
d) Point
It is the cone fashioned end of the drill. The point is shaped to produce lip, face, and flank and
chisel edge or dead center.
e) Land
The part of the drill body between the flutes, it is a narrow strip. It ranges back on the edge of the
drill flutes. The size of drill is measured across the lands at the point end. Land retains the drill
aligned and provide the drill with much of its torsional strength reducing the land width increases
chip space, but reduces strength
f) Margin
The cylindrical portion of the land that is not cut away to provide clearance – The balance of the
land is reduced in diameter, known as “cleared diameter” or “body clearance”. Body clearance is
responsible for the prevention of excessive rubbing and friction. It also permits passage of
lubricants around the drill.
g) Web
It is the central portion of drill located between the roots of the grooves and lengthening from the
point towards the shank. The web of the drill is the metal section separating the flutes and gradually
increases in thickness toward the shank, increasing the rigidity of the drill.
h) Chisel edge
The intersection of flank forms the chisel edge, a point at which the two lips meet. The chisel edge
does not cut; - it penetrates displacing the work piece material and acts as a flat drill. It may cut a
small hole in the work piece at the beginning. Therefore cutting edges removes further materials
to complete the hole. The chisel edge must always be centered exactly on the drill’s axis for
accurate cutting action.
i) Cutting edge or lips
The cutting edges of a drill are known as lips. Both lips should have equal length, same angle of
inclination and correct clearance. They are Cutting edges that extend from the center of the drill to
the outer diameter. The cutting edge lips cut like knives when fed and rotated into the workpiece.
The lips are sharp edges formed by grinding the flutes to a conical point
j) Flank
The surface behind the lip to the following flute is called flank.
k) Face
This is the portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip. The chip impinges on it.
l) Heel
The edge which is formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body clearance is
known as heel. It is the conical shaped portion of the point.
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m) Point angle
It is the angle between the cutting edges. It is generally 118 degree. Its value depends upon the
hardness of the work piece to be drilled. For harder material, larger angles are used. For general
purpose drilling a point angle of 59° (118° included angle) is recommended. The point angle may
vary somewhat, one way or the other, but the variation should be uniform in both cutting lips.
Drills can be ground to any desirable point angle but the common point angles in use are shown below.
n) Rake angle
It is the angle between the face and the axis of the drill that forms the cutting edge. At the periphery
of the drill, it is equal to the helix angle. Generally, the rake angle is between 180 and 450, with
30° being the most common. The rake angle partially governs the tightness with which the chips
curl and the amount of space they occupy. If the rake angle is too small, the lips may be too thin
and break under the strain of drilling. Too large of a rake angle makes the drill chatter and vibrate
excessively.
o) Helix angle
It is the angle between the leading edge of the land and the axis of the drill. It is also called as
spiral angle. It is simply the angle of the flute in relation to the work surface or the angle, which
measures the twist of the drill flutes. For general-purpose twist drills the helix angle is about 32°
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but most twist drills have about a 30º helix angle, called the standard helix. Low helix drills, or
slow spiral angle drills, typically have about a 12º helix. They are used with high spindle speeds
on hard-to-drill materials. These low helix angle drills have increased cutting edge strength and
work well on materials with a tendency to gall or clog the drill hole. This standard helix angle
optimizes chip ejection, drill cross-sectional strength and drill rigidity.
p) Lip clearance angle
It is the angle formed by the portion of the flank adjacent to the land and a plane at right angles to
the drill axis measured at the periphery of the drill. The lip clearance is the amount of slope given
to the heel in back of the drill lips. This clearance is necessary to keep the heel from rubbing the
bottom of the hole being drilled. Rubbing would prevent the drill from cutting.
q) Chisel edge angle
It is the obtuse angle between the chisel edge and the lip. Generally, this angle is 120 and 135
degree. The angle of the chisel edge to the lips is a guide to the clearance. Too much clearance will
cause the drill to break down because of insufficient support of the lip, and there will not be enough
lip thickness to carry away the generated heat. Too little clearance will result in the drill having
little or no cutting edges, and the increased pressure required to feed it into the hole will cause the
drill to break. By looking straight onto the cutting tip of the drill, the operator can see if the chisel
edge is correct. If the chisel edge is correct at 45° to the lips, then it is an indication that the lip
clearance angle is correct. An incorrect chisel edge is usually produced by holding the drill at an
incorrect angle to the wheel when grinding. A good guide is to hold the drill parallel to the ground,
and make slight adjustments.
5.2 Calculating RPM of the Drill
The RPM setting for drilling depends on the cutting speed of the material and the size of the drill
bit. The RPM setting will change with the size of the bit. As the drill bit gets smaller, the RPM
must increase to maintain the recommended surface footage. Take the case of the wheel. Think of
the drill bit as a wheel and the cutting speed as a distance. A larger wheel (drill bit) will need to
turn less revolutions to cover the same distance in the same amount of time than a smaller wheel
(drill bit). Therefore, to maintain the recommended cutting speed, larger drills must be run at
slower speeds than smaller drills.
Machine Speed: To achieve a specific cutting speed:
Example; A 0.50 drill is being used to drill a piece of 1018 steel with a brinnel hardness of 200.
Calculate the Spindle speed setting to perform this drilling operation.
Cutting Speed = 70 (fpm) from Table.
Diameter of Cutter = 0.500
RPM = (4 x Vc)/ 4 = (4 x 70) /0.50 = 280/0.50 = 560 rpm
Example: How fast should a 3/8 inch drill be turning when drilling mild steel?
From our recommended cutting speed Table below, use a cutting speed of 100 for mild steel.
(100 x 4) / .375 = 1066 RPM
Although you have calculated the RPM, remember that this is only a recommendation. Some
judgment must be made in selecting the actual R.P.M. setting to use. There are always outside
factors that must go into deciding on the proper speed and feed to use. Ask yourself these questions
before deciding on an R.P.M. setting. How sturdy is my setup? Go slower for setups, which lack
a great deal of rigidity. Am I using coolant? You may be able to use a faster speed if you are using
flood coolant. How deep am I drilling? If you’re drilling a deep hole, there is no place for the heat
to go. You may have to slow the RPM down for deep whole drilling.
The greatest indicator of proper and improper cutting speed is the color of the chip. When using a
high-speed steel drill bit, the chips should never be turning brown or blue. Straw-colored chips
indicate that you are on the maximum edge of the cutting speed for your cutting conditions. When
using carbide, chip colors can range from amber to blue, but never black. A dark purple color will
indicate that you are on the maximum edge of your cutting conditions.
8" Tri Square 9", Sliding T-Bevel with wooden handle and a combination set
Try square with spirit level Try square with wooden head
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Bevel gauge
side. Using this as a guide, you can now make the necessary adjustment to create a perfectly level
project. There are varieties of spirit level for different designs but the longer the spirit level the
more accurate the reading.
Spirit level
d) Punches
This is one the bench work tools used in marking out. The punch is used in drilling operations to
set out the center of the work piece to be drill. It is made of about 10mm octagonal cast steel that
is 100mm long. The body is knurled for easy gripping with the end one pointed end ground to a
designed angle of 600, 900 etc. depending on the type. The punches is also used for marking out
ends of a work piece to be centered for turning in a lathe machine and centers of circles or lines to
be drawn by the divide.
Punches
e) V –Block
V-Blocks are precision metalworking jigs typically used to hold round metal rods or pipes for
performing drilling or milling operations. A ‘V” block serves as a very useful support to the work
in marking. It usually works in conjunction with a U-clamp. Round bar is placed longitudinally in
the block and the screw in the clamp tightened. Its specific use is in holding the round bars during
marking and center drilling their end faces, which are to be held between centers on the lathe. Also
it is very suitable for holding round bars in drilling operations when the axis of the drill is to be
kept normal to the axis of the bar.
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Vee block
f) Simple Scriber
Simple scriber is a round hardened sharp pointed steel piece of about 3 to 5mm in diameter and
150 to 300mm long. One sharp pointed end is bent and used to scribe in a hole or place difficult
for the straight pointed.
Simple scribers
g) Ordinary scribing block. It is principal marking tool in a fitting/working shop and is made in
various forms and sizes. It consists of a cast iron sliding base fitted with a vertical steel rod. The
marker is fitted into an adjustable device carrying a knurled nut at one end. By means of the nut
the marker can be loosened or tightened to set it at any desired inclination, moved to and fro inside
the hole accommodating it or adjust its height along the vertical pillar . Normally it is used in
conjunction with either a surface plate or marking table. Its specific use is in locating centers of
round rods held in V-block, describing straight lines on work held firmly in its position by means
of a suitable device like angle plate and also in drawing a number of lines parallel to a true surface.
i) Gauge
Lengths and angles of any object are determined (measured) using a gauge by comparison with a
measuring instrument, where the exact value measured can be read on a scale. They are not
graduated and cannot entirely be called a measuring instrument. There can be no linear or angular
adjustment in gauging a piece. Gauges are most often used to confirm a known diameter, depth,
gap or thickness. It is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides of an
object, a simple tool used to measure gap widths. Now depending on the usage, a gauge can be
referred to as a measuring instrument but in reality a gauge is used to find whether the dimensions
of a part lie within certain desired limits or not. Lengths and angles of any object are determined
(measured) using a gauge by comparison with a measuring instrument, where the exact value
measured can be read on a scale. They are not graduated and cannot entirely be called a measuring
instrument. There can be no linear or angular adjustment in gauging a piece. Gauges are most often
used to confirm a known diameter, depth, gap or thickness.
Depth gauge is used in measuring the depth of a blind hole, height of shoulders in holes, grooves
etc. The gauge is made up of a steel rule, sliding head and a hole in a straight line formation. The
rule simply read off the value required. Telescopic gauge, which has a straight handle and two rods
at one end of it. The two rods are designed in a telescopic way where one can press into the other
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in a spring-rod arrangement. The other end has a knurled nob for locking the two rods in a required
position.
j) Calipers
Calipers are used together with a calibrated instrument to transfer and confirm dimensions. There
are outside calipers, spring type calipers, inside calipers and dual purpose calipers known as
Hermaphrodite or odd leg calipers. Inside, outside, transfer and spring type calipers are used with
steel rule to read off measurement. The odd leg calipers are mainly used for marking out lines
parallel to the edge of the work and for locating the centers of a cylindrical work. Dividers which
may be spring type or firm joint type. Dividers are used in marking out curves and circles,
transferring dimensions and general layout work
a) Fore planes have a sole that ranges from 14″ to 20″ long. The traditional (but by no means
only) job of the fore plane is to remove material quickly. By virtue of its longish sole it also
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tends to straighten the wood to some degree. The fore plane is typically the first bench plane to
touch the wood to get it to rough size.
Jointer planes have a sole that ranges from 22″ up to 30″ (in wooden-bodied planes). The
primary job of jointer planes is to straighten the wood, a task it excels at by virtue of its long sole
(the longer the sole, the straighter the resulting work). The jointer plane is used after the fore
plane but before the smoothing plane.
Smoothing planes have a sole that ranges from 5″ to 10″ long. The primary job of the smoothing
plane is to prepare the wood for finishing. It is typically the last plane to touch the wood
Short bench planes like a smoothing plane are good for smoothing the wood to create a glassy,
finish-ready surface. Jack planes are slightly larger. They're used in the early milling stages to
remove the hills and valleys on the surface of a board. ... They feature long flat soles to straighten
or “joint” the wood.
b) A spoke shave is a tool used to shape and smooth woods in woodworking jobs. Once you learn
how to tune a spoke shave and use it properly, it will be a tough tool to put down. It’s a flexible
tool that works well in many situations– often for use as wheel spokes, in planning chair legs or
particularly complex shapes. It can also be used to carve canoe.
Spokeshave
wooden handle, carrying metal clips with wing-nut at its curved end to. The clip carrying the wing
nut is threaded so as to stretch the blade to the desired extent. The frame can be either of fixed
type, which can accommodate the same length of blades or adjustable type which is capable of
accommodating different lengths of blades. Hack saw blades are made of high carbon steel or low
alloy steel. The blade is the main part. Push type blades, those which cut in forward stroke only,
are generally used. In these, the teeth always point away from the operator. The blades in common
use are generally 0.7 mm thick, 12.7 mm wide and 20 cm to 30 long. About 5 to 7 teeth per cm
length of blade from the coarse group and 8 to 12 Tpcm from the fine group of teeth. The Jigsaw
is the grand master of cutting shapes in a variety of materials. A coping saw is used to cut through thin
pieces of wood and plastic. The thing that the coping saw can do better than most other saws is cut
curves and corners. Junior hacksaw: this saw is designed to cut through thin metal plate. Tenon
saw: because of the stiffness of the blade, a Tenon saw can only cut straight lines although it can
do so very accurately if used properly. The wood or metal should be held in a vice or properly
secured and the line to be cut should be marked with a scriber when using the cutting instruments.
b) Knifes
Marking our knives are layout tool used to scribe a line into a workpiece. The knife's edge helps
make accurate cuts that can be followed with a handsaw or chisel.
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There are many varieties of chisels used for chipping work in the workshop to generate a desired
shape. They are used to generate blind rectangular holes in wood working. Some very commonly
used forms in wood working are Full length of the chisel is never hardened, only a small length
about the cutting edge (say about 20 to 30 mm) is hardened.
The included angle at the cutting edge varies between 400 and 700, depending upon the material
on which it is to be used. A flat chisel is a general purpose chisel which is most widely used in
cutting work, chipping large surface.
A flat Chisel
c) A file is a tool used to remove fine amounts of material from a work piece. Most are hand tools,
forged out of high carbon steel, hardened and tempered. One or more surfaces cut with sharp,
generally parallel teeth. All the files, irrespective of their shape, size and grade, essentially consist
the blade, heel, and tang
A file
Ball peen hammer Claw hammer Cross Pen straight pen Mallet
Ratchet- mechanical device consisting of a toothed wheel or rack engaged with a pawl that permits
it to move in only one direction. Impact wrench- socket wrench power tool designed to deliver
high torque output with minimal exertion by the user, by storing energy in a rotating mass, then
delivering it suddenly to the output shaft. It is used in screwing a socket ring lock in place. Angle
grinders-a handheld power tool used for grinding (abrasive cutting) and polishing. Portable die
grinder-widely used in automobile, engineering and metal processing industries for finishing metal
surface. Portable shear- are lightweight, hand held power tools used to cut through sheet metal.
These shears are capable of continuous cutting along a straight or irregular line on a workpiece.
Field and machine shop maintenance personnel use the portable metal cutting shears for sheet
metal trimming, auto body work, duct work, aircraft structural repair, and cutting template
patterns. These tools can be powered by an electric motor or air depending on the model selected.
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Morticing machine
c) Tenoning Machine
Tenoning machines use cutter heads and/or saw blades to form projections (tenons) on pieces of
stock. Each tenon can be inserted into a cavity (mortise) on another piece of wood to form a mortise
and tenon joint. Single End Tenoners are basically a double end tenoners with only one drive
chain/cutter at one side. A part to be worked on is put on a table which is usually manually fed
through the machine, numerous cutters, saws shaper heads, etc. operating at the same time will do
various operations to the edge of the piece depending on the application. There can be one head,
two heads and sometimes up to six heads doing different jobs to the edge of a piece of wood as it
passes through each cutter. The first head could be a cut off, just to cut to length; the next head
could be a scoring blade that will leave no rough edges; the next head could be a top tenoning head
which will put a groove in the top of the part; then a bottom tenoning head to put in the bottom
groove; and various other heads doing other specific jobs at the same time. Used either in the panel
industry for edge work on a panel, or can be used for the solid wood industry for doing certain
parts. Double end tenoners are just extensions of single end tenoners as they are double sided
machines. Doing two sides at once, they have a chain drive on both sides of the machine.
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d) Drilling machine.
Originally, carpenters and craftspeople drilled holes by hand using a "brace and bit. The brace and
bit is seldom used now, but the same concept applies to drilling holes by hand using a hand-
operated drill driver or portable drill press. The drill driver has a crank, which powers a gear
mechanism, which turns the chuck and bit. This tool is fairly inexpensive and easy to use in tight
working spaces. Drills powered by electric motors became widely used many years ago, but they
have been replaced in recent years by battery-powered cordless drill drivers. These battery-
powered devices can also be used to drive in wood screws. The electric motor press can sit on a
workbench or larger models can sit on the floor. A steel column connects the base to the top of the
press where the motor powering the chuck which holds the bit is located. There is a geared
mechanism that the operator can use to lower or raise the bit with a lever.
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