LET Reviewer-ENGLISH

LECTURE NOTES

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

The communication process is indeed a paradox. We always communicate with each other,
yet defining the process itself seems to be a very difficult task. Language of different historical
periods, in their dire attempts to bridge the gap, were able to formulate their own theories to
explain the process of communication, Since the linear representation of Aristotle to the
complex depiction of modern linguist, we can say that this endeavor has come a long way.

Renowned linguist have different points of view about the communication process, and this
diversity proves to be the fuel that keeps linguist of today on taking forward steps en route to the
better understanding of this process.

Two to be discussed in this chapter, each representing the traditional and the contemporary
schools of thought as regards communication. Berio’s representation, being the most widely
cited and extensively use model, will be discussed to explain in the basic components of the
communication cycle, while the Dance Helix model will be clarified to give a fresh and novel
perspective on the practice of other long-standing theories.

Berios’Model

David Berios’s paradigm of the communication process is considered one of the most
recognizable representations. It has four major components: source, receiver, message, and the
channel. That is why at times this model is also called SMRC.
 SOURCE MESSAGE
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
CONTENT
ATTITUDES
TREATMENT
KNOWLEDGE
CODE
SOCIAL SYSTEM
CULTURE

RECEIVER
CHANNEL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
SEEING ATTITUDES
HEARING KNOWLEDGE
TOUCHING SOCIAL SYSTEM
SMELLING CULTURE
TASTING

SMRC’s linearity is oftentimes criticized, but Berio’s elucidations regarding the significance of
each component redeem it all. According to him, the interlocutors’ ( source and receiver) , and
attitude are

communication skills, knowledge, socio-cultural system, and attitude are important for
successful communication to take place ( Berio, 1960). For example, if the source has a higher
level of language proficiency compared to the receiver, or vice versa, then problems are
expected. Refer to the sample conversation below and then try, to figure out what caused the
lapse in communication.

Conversation Sample

Setting: Jakarta International Airport Immigration Counter

Situation: The immigration officer is interviewing a tourist about the latter’s whereabouts.

Specifications: The immigration officer is a native speaker, while tourist is a beginner learning
of English language.

Immigration Officer: Good morning, Miss! May I know your travel itinerary?

Tourist: Uhh….sory. What is that again?

Immigration Officer: oh, I mean… where do you plan to go?

Tourist: Oh, I see. Actually I plan to go to the Metropolitan Museum and to the Museum of
Modern Art, and maybe stay for another two days in New York City before flying to Florida.
 Immigration officer: Okay. Welcome to America. Enjoy your vacation!

In the sample conversation above, the difference between the proficiencies of the interlocutors
led to lapses in communication. It is also noticeable that success of the process relies largely
on the one who has higher proficiency. Since the tourist has limited vocabulary (being a
beginner), the immigration officer paraphrased the statement to fit the level of the tourist.

Discrepancy between knowledge of the interlocutors also poses great treat. Read the sample
conversation below and try to cite some reasons for the communication breakdown.

Conversation Sample

Setting: Computer repair shop

Situation: One client wants to have her laptop fixed.

Specifications: Both the client and the technician have the same language of proficiency.

Client: Good morning! May I ask why my laptop shouts down automatically just right after
turning it on?

Technician: Okay, let me see it.

Client: So what do you think?

Technician: I think your laptop has been infected by Trojans and worms…

Client: Huh? Trojans? Worms?

Technician: Yes. By the way, do you do defragmentation every once in a while? Doing so
greatly helps the performance of your computer.

Client: Huh? What is that again? Defragment…what?

Technician : Defragmentation. Anyway, to fix your laptop, I will just rebot and reformat
everything, is that ok with you?

Client: I am not really familiar with you are saying. So fix it and send me the Bill Ok?

In conversation above, the technician uses jargon exclusive to those who are adept in the
computers and information technology. For someone who is not really into the technicians of
computer software and hardware nomenclature, understanding what the technician is saying
poses great difficulty that can later on lead to communication breakdown.

English Language Learning

Learning the English language circles around the Three Sets of Four, and below is a table that
summarizes these sets.
MACRO SKILLS CUEING SYSTEMS COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCIES
Learning Phonology Grammatical
Speaking Morphology Discourse
Reading Semantics Sociolinguistic
Writing Syntax Strategic

THE FOUR CUEING SYSTEMS

CUEING SYSTEM Definition

Phonology Pertains to the sounds of language
Morphology Pertains to formation of words
Types of morphemes
 Bound morpheme ( dependent)
 Free morpheme (independent)

Semantics Pertains to meaning derivation

Syntax Grammar, structure, and form of the language

LISTENING

 Experts say that listening is the first language skill that students learn. If we are to think
about it, this claim may be true. Upon hearing things, the one can speak-just like how we
learned our first utterances. Parents keep on repeating words until the babies initiate and
repeat the utterances successfully ( behaviorist). But is listening as easy as it may
sound?

The Listening Process

Receiving Decoding Selecting

Retaining Comprehending Interpreting

 Reacting Responding

The receiving of the message from the source signals is the start of listening process. The
listener, then, will decode the message and select important parts of the message that will help
the listener in interpreting it. Based on the interpretation, the receiver now comprehends the
message and retains information needed for him to react and respond.

Kinds of Listening

Interactional/ Emphatic Listening

 This type of listening is very common at times done in an informal setting. This
happens when persons listen to each other for the purpose of communicating and
empathizing. At times, the aim of this type of listening is to accomplish tasks or to
come up with something.
 In classroom setting, this is when students listen to each other for them to able to
accomplish given tasks and activities.

Transactional/Critical Listening

 In this type of listening, the listener is concerned with acquiring new knowledge for
the purpose of improving his skill in generalizing and decision making.
 In a classroom setting, this is when the students listen to their teacher to gain more
knowledge

THREE MODELS OF LISTENING

Joan Morely in her essay “Aural Comprehension, instruction: principles and Practices” made
mention of the three modes of listening, namely: Undirectional, Birectional, and Autodirectional.

Undirectional If the listener cannot respond to the things he/she heard

Bidirectional If the listening process is reciprocal-meaning, two way ( indicated by

prefix “bi”)

Autodirectional If the listening process is reflexive-meaning, the speaker this is

intrapersonal listening

SPEAKING
Language and language learning developed as fast as civilization. In the olden times, man used
language merely for survival-now, language functions as one important medium of change and
innovation.

But the question still remains… what is language? Language was defined by Webster as the
expression and communication of emotions or ides between human beings by means of speech
and hearing that is systematized and confirmed by usage among a given people over a period
of time. If we are to look a Webster’s definition can infer that there are only two functions of
language.

The first one is to express how one feels ( emotions); and the second one is to express how
one thinks (ideas). He also mentioned two important factors of language speaking (speech) and
listening (hearing). The two word systematized in Webster’s definition can also be related to
grammar-meaning it follows certain rules and systems, and lastly, he also mentioned”period of
time”, which can be interpreted as the changes language goes through with me.

Webster’s definition is in line with the structurist’s. For them language follows a system-
meaning, one cannot just mix letters to form words. X,Y, K, and D cannot be combined to form a
meaningful word-well, at least in English. In the sentence” she is pretty,”it will be erroneous if
one will change “is” to “are”. These instances are the bases of the structurist in saying that
language is a system. They also believes that language is primary vocal, is another claim of the
structurists. For them, and other Webster, speaking and listening are important language skills.
They also adhere to the concept that language is arbitrary. For them, language constantly goes
through series of innovations developments, and changes. The word “thee”, “thou”, “growist”,
and hath” are no longer used today. This is one proof that language, just as other things,
constantly changes.

The cognitivist, however, believe that language is a mental phenomena. For them, language
learning is innate in the individual. According to them, there is one part in our brain called LAD
(language acquisition device) that is responsible for language acquisition. If we are to analyze
their definition, we can infer that language (for them) is not learned but acquired. The difference
of learning from acquiring is that learning is voluntary while acquiring is involuntary. We choose
to learn, but we no choice what to acquire. We acquire traits from our parents, but we learn how
to solve math problems.

The functionalist have rather functional definition about language. For them language performs
specific functions, such as to express, to persuade, to give or ask information, and to make
someone to do something. Most people will agree with this definition, because practically these
functions are what language is really for.

The behaviorists also have their own definition of language. For them, language is learned
through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. If a teacher teaching grade one pupils will ask
her students to say word the she does, then pupils learned( imitation). If the teacher will ask the
same pupils to repeat saying the world over and over again, then the pupil will be punished. On
the other hand, if the pupil were able to say it correctly, then he/she will receive a prize. Given
the two instances above, then the pupils learned ( reinforcement)

THE SEGMENTALS
According to the structurist, language is primarily vocal, but the question is-how to speak
properly? Is it merely opening and closing the mouth? Or is there a complex process that guides
speech production? In this action, you will know how the speech mechanism works.

The Family of Consonant Sounds

Consonant sounds can be classified according to the three dimensions: the place of articulation
(where the sounds is made), the manner of articulation (how the sounds is made), and voicing
(voiceless or voiced).

Manner of Articulation

Stops/Plosives

These are sounds produced when the air stream is compressed and passes through a small
creating friction. The sounds F,V,S,Z,H,TH ( voiced) and voiceless), Sh Zh, are the members of
this group.

Affricates

These are sounds produced when a plosive is followed by a fricative. Ts ( Ch), and Dz (J) are
the members of this group.

Nasals

Nasal sounds are produced when the oral cavity is blocked, and so the air passes through the
nose. N, M, and Ng are nasal sounds.

Liquid/Lateral

Sounds are produced when air stream moves around the tongue in an unobstructed manner.
Sounds like L and R are examples.

Glides

Glides are sounds that are close to vowel sounds, like W and Y.

Point of Articulation

Bilabial Two lips touching each other

Labio Dental Lower lips touches upper teeth
Dental Tip of the tongue and the inner edge of the upper
teeth
Alveolar Tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge
Palatal The tongue and hard palate
Velar Dorsal tongue and soft palate
Glottal Throat passage
Voiced or Voiceless

A sound is voiced if the vocal cords vibrate, whereas a sound is voiceless if the vocal cords are
not vibrating upon the production of sounds.

Consonant Chart

Place of Articulation
Manner
Bilabial Labio Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Dental
Stop TD KG
Fricative FV Th SZ SH ZH H
(voiced
and
voiceles
s
Affricate TS DZ
Nasal M N NG
Loud L R
Glide W Y

VOWELS

Vowels sounds are produced with one’s mouth open. It is also a fact that all vowel sounds are
voiced sounds can be classified according to the height of the tongue and jaw, and the way the
mouth opens.

Vowel sounds can be classified as SPREAD, ROUND, OR NEUTRAL.

SPREAD

/i/ Long/i/sound as in “phoenix” and “beat”

/l/ Short /l/ sound as in “bit”, “captain”, “pin”, and
“maariage”
/e/ Soft /e/ sound as in “hate”, “mate”, “grape”, and “gate”
/E/ Hard /E/ sound as in “let”, “set”, “any”, and “ jeopardy”
/ae) Combination of /a/ and /e/ as in “family”, “man”, “anger”,
and “hamburger”

NEUTRAL
/Y/ Unaccented schwa sound as in “towel”,
and “America”
/^/ Accented schwa as in “judge”, and “cup”

ROUND

/u/ Long /u/ sound as in “balloon”, “soon”,

and “pool”
/U/ Short /U/ sound as in ”pull”, “would”, “push”,
and”cook”
/o/ Complete/o/ sound as in “boat”, “phone”,
and”own”
/a/ The /a/ sound as in” dark”, sergeant”, and
“psalm”

THE SUPRA SEGEMENTALS

Juncture
Juncture is defined as the pauses and rests in a given speaking discourse. It is commonly
represented by a single slash(/) for short pauses, double slashes (//) for long pauses, and three
slashes(///) for rests at the end of the paragraph

Pitch
This is the highness or lowness of sound

Volume
This is the loudness or softness of sound

Intonation
This is the rising and falling sound

Stress
This is the placement of emphasis or force on certain words or syllables

READING

Jean Chall, Proposes skills that are essential for real reading to take place. She said that there
are five skills that a student must have like.

1. Phonemic Awareness- being familiar with the sounds of the language

2. Phonics – drawing out the relationship between the symbol and the sound
( graphonemic relationship)
3. Fluency – the ability to blend and mix the sounds to form a meaningful utterance
4. Vocabulary- the ability to attach meaning to words
 5. Comprehension- the ability to create and decode meaning from a group of words.

Chall also constructed a matrix of stages of reading development. She states that there are six
stages namely:

Stage 0 Pre-Reading Stage

In this stage, the students are being exposed to the different sounds of the language. This is
the reason why songs, nursery rhymes, and poetry are being read to the students of reading.
Automatically in recognizing a particular language is the key in the next stages. The teacher can
determine if the students have phonemic awareness if they can name from language the words
they hear are from.

Stage 1 Initial Reading Stage

In this stage, the students will start to realize the correspondence between the symbol and the
sound. For example, upon seeing the symbol M, the students will know that the sound is /m/ as
in “mother”

Stage 2 Confirmation Stage

This stage is deemed to be very crucial in reading development and according to Chall, most
will mistake fluency for comprehension. She reiterates that mere verbalization of written text
cannot be considered complete reading.

Stage 3 Reading to Learn (Academic Reading)

The first three stages are considered”learning to read stages” while stage 3 up until stage 5 are
“reading to learn stages”. In this particular stage, students must be beyond fluency. They must
be able to comprehend what they read because if not, they will have difficulty in learning

Stage 4 Multiple Viewpoint Stage and Stage 5 Construction and Judgment Stage
After reading a text, if students were able to give their opinions they belong to the fourth stage.
On the other hand, if students were able to criticize a particular text, and in turn were able to
write their own, they belong to fifth stage

Purpose of Reading

Skimming- reading to get the main idea

Scanning – reading to get specific information

Other Purposes of Reading

1. Information searching
2. General comprehending
3. New information learning
4. Information evaluating and synthesizing

WRITING
The Paragraph

The paragraph is defined as a group of unified, coherent, well-developed sentences that are
properly and logically organized to support one specific idea or topic.

Based on the given definition, we can infer that it is important for a paragraph to have Unity,
Coherence, logical Organization, support or Development, proper Emphasis, and one governing
and limiting topic sentence- “UCODE TS”

The paragraph Paradigm

Based on the diagram below, we can say that a paragraph is unified if all the sentences are
about the topic sentence. It has coherence if all the sentences are connected with each other
properly and logical and coherent order.

S2

S1 Topic Sentence
S3

S4

GRAMMAR

Part of Speech

NOUNS

A noun names something- person, place, things, events, phenomena, emotions, etc.

Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper nouns- names of specific persons, things, or places
2. Common nouns- refer to any one of a class of persons, places, or things
3. Count nouns- nouns that can be counted and quantified using numbers
 4. Non count nouns Mass nouns- nouns that cannot be counted and quantified using
measurements
- Mass nouns, abstract nouns, events, occasions and phenomena are under noon
count nouns.
5. Collective nouns- nouns that name a group of persons or things
6. Compound nouns- nouns that are made up of two words acting as a single unit.
- Compound nouns may be written as separate words hyphenated words, or combined
words.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words that stand for nouns

Kinds of Pronouns

1. Personal pronouns- these are pronouns that refer to the person speaking, the person
spoken to, or the
person or thing spoken about.

SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I ( Subjective) WE ( Subjective)
ME ( Objective) US ( Objective)
SECOND PERSON YOU YOU

THIRD PERSON SHE, HE, HER,HIM, IT THEY ( Subjective)

THEM ( Objective)

2. Possessive pronouns- these are pronouns that show possession

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

MY MINE
OUR OURS
YOUR YOURS
THEIR THEIRS
HIS HIS
HER HERS
ITS

Examples:
Possessive Adjective: This is my book ( “my” qualifies the book)
Possessive Pronoun: This book is mine. (‘mine” represents the owner of the book)

3. Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON MYSELF OURSELVES
SECOND YOURSELF YOURSELVES
PERSON HIMSELF THEMSELVES
THIRD PERSON ITSELF
ONSLELF

Example:

REFLEXIVE INTENSIVE
The pronoun refers to the subject The pronoun shows emphasis
a. I see myself in his actions a. I, myself is the culprit
b. Did you teach yourself? b. You, yourself teach
c. He cut the paper himself c. He, himself cut the paper
d. They were shocked about themselves d. They themselves were shocked

4. Indefinite Pronouns- do not refer to a specific noun.

SINGULAR PLURAL BOTH SINGULAR AND PLURAL

ANY ,EVERYONE BOTH, SEVERAL NONE
ANYBODY, NO ONE FEW ALL
EVERYBODY MANY SOME
ANYONE

5. Interrogative pronouns- used in asking questions

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
WHO HOW TO WHOM
WHAT WHOM TO WHAT
WHICH WHOSE TO WHICHWHERE
WHY WHEN

6. Demonstrative pronouns- used in pointing nouns

SINGULAR THIS THAT

PLURAL THESE THOSE

ADJECTIVES

An adjective qualifies and tells something about a NOUN or PRONOUN through descriptions.

It answers the questions:

What kind?
Which one?
How many?
How much?
Comparison of Adjectives

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

BIG BIGGER BIGGEST
USEFUL MORE USEFUL MOST USEFUL
ACTIVE LESS ACTIVE LEAST ACTIVE
BAD WORSE WORST

Order of Adjectives

Descriptive Adjectives
determiner observation origin material qualifier noun
size shape age color sports Car
An Expensive Red European Necklace
An Extrai- Daisies
ordinary
Six Long White american Hair
stemmed
Her shiny Short Black Dog
My Big Old German Boxes
Those Long Ceramic jewelry Locket
That Smooth Big Insects
Few Tiny African gold Films
Some Erotic Indian

VERBS

Oftentimes. Verbs are defined as action words. But reality, verbs are far more than that. Verbs
also link ideas in a sentence, help other verbs, and state conditions. We can classify verbs into
(1) verbs actions, (2) linking/be verbs, (3) helping verbs, (4) emphatic verbs, and of course, (5)
modals.

Action Verbs
These are verbs that express action. A majority of verbs are of this nature, and that is why most
of the time, learners tend to define verbs as action words. Words like run, walk, talk, sing,
dance, etc. are common examples of action verbs. We can further classify actions verbs into
two more sub classifications-Regular and Irregular verbs.

Regular verbs
Action verb is considered regular if its past form is derived by adding d or ed. Let us take the
word walk for an example; the past form of walk is walked.

BASE FORM PAST FORM

Watch Watched
Bake Baked
Pick Picked
Save Saved

Irregular verbs
Action verb is considered irregular if its past form is derived not by adding d or ed, but through a
change or through retention in spelling.

BASE FORM PAST FORM

Pay Paid
Put Put
Say Said
write Wrote

Linking verbs

Linking Verbs as Copula

The copula is defined by Celce-Muricia as the link between the subject and non verbal
predicates ( nouns, adjectives, and some adverbials). The copula also carries the tense and
would determines subject-verb agreement.

Examples:
She is beautiful---She is a pronoun, and beautiful is an adjective.
She is beautiful---She is singular, that is why we used “is”

Linking Verbs as Perception Corpulas

These are verbs that expresses no action, but at the same time, are not conventional ( is, are,
was, were) linking verbs. They are called Perception copulas because they are perceived
through the senses ( mental or sensory)

Examples:
Appear Seem Feel Look
Smell Sound Taste

Linking Verb as State Copulas

State copulas are verbs that are not locomotive. They are more of a condition than an action.

Examples:
Lie Remain
Rest Stand

Linking Verbs as Change of State Copulas

These linking verbs do not express instant locomotion or movement. Mostly, these verbs
express changes from one state to another.

Examples:
Become Come Fall
Get Go Grow
Turn

These are also called helping verbs because they always appear with another verb in a
sentence ( main verb). Linking verbs such as is, was, were, are considered auxiliary verbs if
they appear together with a for a s verb in progressive form. Other helping verbs are has, have,
and had.

The verb has is used for singular subjects in the present tense. The verb “have” is used for
plural subjects in the present tense, and had is used doe both singular and plural subjects in the
past tense. Has, have and had, are also considered Auxiliary verbs if they appear in a sentence
with another verb( main verb) in the past participal form.

Example:
She has taken a bath already the verb”has” functions as an auxiliary

Emphatic Verbs

Emphatic verb are used to give certain emphasis. These verbs are do, does, and did. Do is
used for plural subjects in the present tense. DOES is used for singular subjects in the present
tense, and DID for both plural and singular in the past tense.

The verbs, DO,DOES, and DID can also be used as main verbs. They are only considered em
phatic verbs if they appear in a sentence with another verb in its base form.

Example:
She did not drink her milk ----- DID is used as an emphatic verb

Modals
According to Celece-Muria, modals are helping verbs that are used to give a proposition. A
degree of probability, to express one’s attitude, and to perform various social functions such as
expressing politeness or indirectness when making request, giving advice, or grabting
permission. It is always couples with a verb on its base form.

a. Stating Ability
I can do anything

b. Expressing Regret
I should have loved you
c. Giving warning
You may be in danger

d. Expressing Admission with Reservation

I might be wrong, but I know what I did

e. Expressing observation
You must do this

ADVERBS
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or another adverb.

Adverb of Manner

This answers the question how a thing is done

Example:
He did the job poorly
Question: How did he do the job?
Answer: Poorly

Adverb of Time

This answers the question when the action happened

Example:
He will go there tomorrow
Question: When will he go there?
Answer: Tomorrow

Adverb of Frequency

This answers the question how often

Example:
She is there every week
Question: how frequent is she there?
Answer: every week

PREPOSITION

A preposition links words with a sentence. It also states how two separate things are related. A
preposition may indicate a location, direction, possession, or cause.

Common Prepositions

In front of About In Beneath

In regard to Above Near During
Inside Across Down By
In spite of Against Despite By means
Into Among From Amid

CONJUNCTION

If prepositions link words within a sentence, conjunctions relate or join words into single unit.

Coordinating Conjunctions- connect words or group of words

Examples: but, and, for, nor, or, so, yet
TIP: Coordinating conjunctions connect words of the same grammatical structures.
Correlative Conjunctions- connect words under the same grammatical structure, but they
always appear in pairs.
Examples: either….or, neither… nor

Subordinating Conjunctions- connects two complete ideas to make one dependent to other.
Examples: inasmuch as, whenever, unless

INTERJECTION

These are words that express strong feelings or emotions. They may function as an
independent sentence with the speaker as the subject.
Examples: ouch, aha, alas, oh, hurray

Subject and Verb Agreement

Collective Nouns
These nouns can either take a singular or plural verb depending on how they are used in a
sentence. On the other hand, if a collective noun is perceived as one entity, then it would take a
singular verb. On the other hand, if a collective noun is perceived as individuals the group, it will
take a plural verb.
Examples: Our debate team has won the competition
Our debate team have won all their battles

Noun ending in –s-and –ics

Nouns ending in s and ics are always paired with verbs in the singular form
Examples: Mathematics is my favorite subject
Measles is a dangerous disease

Nouns in sets of twos.

Nouns of this nature take a singular verb if the word” pair” is present. If not. They take a plural
verb.
Examples: A pair of scissors in on the table
The scissors are on the table

“A number” and “The number”

Sentence beginning with the phrase “ a number” always take a plural verb, while sentences
that begin with “ the number” take a singular verb”
Examples: A number of students have been expelled
The number of students being expelled is rising.

Fraction and Percent

Nouns in percent and in fraction take a singular verb if paired with a non-count noun, and vice
versa.
Examples: 50% of the Earth’s water is still safe for drinking
One-third of the students were expelled
Compound Nouns
Compound subjects joined by a conjunction take plural verbs.
Examples: Paul and Robin are brothers

Neither…nor and Either…or

The verb must agree with closet noun.
Example: Neither John nor his brothers are going to America

As well and Together with

The verb must agree with the first noun (subject).
Example: the president, together with his advisers, is leaving tomorrow

Tenses

Simple Present Tense

Verbs in the present tense express habitual or factual actions.
Examples: She sings
The sun shines
Simple Past Tense
Verbs in the past tense express actions that happened in the past.
Example: She sang yesterday

Simple Future Tense

Verbs in the future tense express actions that will happen in the future.
Example: She will sing.

Present Progressive Tense

Verbs in the present progressive tense, express actions that are happening at the moment.
Example: She is singing.

Past Progressive Tense

This expresses a continuing action that started and ended in the past.
Example: She was singing all afternoon yesterday.

Future Progressive Tense

This expresses a continuing action that will happen in the future.
Example: She will be singing in the competition.

Present Perfect Tense

This expresses an action that started in the past, but is still happening at present
Example: I have sung a song.

Past Perfect Tense

This expresses two past actions, in which one happened before the other.
Example: she had sung before she danced.
Future Perfect Tense
This expresses two future actions, in which one will happen before the other.
Example: She will have sung before she dances.

Present Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses an action that started in the past and still happening at present and will most
likely continue to happen in the future.
Example: She has been singing since this morning.

Past Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses two past actions, where the first one was still happening when the second one
transpired.
Example: She had been singing before the bomb exploded.

Future Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses two future actions, where the first action is still happening when the second one
is transpires.
Example: She will have been singing before the bomb explodes.

SUMMARY SUMMARY
Present I dance
Past I danced
Future I will dance
Present Progressive I am dancing
Past Progressive I was dancing all afternoon yesterday
Future Progressive I will be dancing
Present Perfect I have danced
Past Perfect I had danced before I sang
Future Perfect I will have danced before I sing
Present Perfect Progressive I have been dancing since then
Past perfect Progressive I had been dancing when the bomb exploded
Future Perfect Progressive I will have been when the party ends

Faulty Modifiers

Dangling Modifier- absence of the word being modified

Example: Inside the store, shoes must be worn
Who must wear the shoes?
Customers must wear shoes inside the store.

Misplaced Modifier- the modifier modifies the wrong word.

Example: Turning green, I watched the lights turning green.

Fragment- group of words masquerading as a sentence

Example: The justice system in the olden times
 Sentence

Four Kinds of Sentences according to Function

Declarative- states an idea and express facts and opinion

Example:
She is a pretty girl
We must learn how to swim
The earth is round

Interrogative- used in asking questions

- Ends with a question mark

Example:
Who are you?
What is the capital city of Hungary?

Imperative- used in asking someone to do something

- “you” is the implies subject

Example:
Go away
Turn around
Write your name

Exclamatory- used to express strong feeling or emotion

-end with a exclamation point
Example:
Fire!
Bomb!
You won!

Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

Sentence Patterns with Transitive Verbs

S-AV-DO ( Subject-Action Verb-Direct Object)
Beth read the book quickly
I gave him a book

S-AV-IO-DO (Subject- Action Verb- Indirect Object-Direct Object)

I gave the place a new coat of paint
Mr. Padilla gave me the test results

S-AV-DO-OC (Subject- Action Verb-Direct Object- Object Complement)

The judges considered him a champion
The movie’s ending made her happy
Sentence Patterns with Linking Verbs

S-LV-PN (Subject-Linking Verbs-Predicate Nominative

That boy is the culprit
One of the contestants is she.

S-LV-PA (Subject- Linking Verb- Predicate Adjective

The show is cool
The singer sounds bad

Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

Simple Sentence- composed of one independent clause

Compound Sentence- composed of two or more independent clauses
Complex Sentence- composed of one independent clause and two or more dependent clauses
Compound- Complex- composed of two or more independent clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses

Examples:

Simple Sentence I tried to stop her

Compound Sentence I tried to stop her, but she still went away
Complex Sentence I tried to stop her when she left
Compound- Complex I tried to stop her when she left, but she still went away

LITERATURE

Introduction to Fiction

FICTION
Fiction is a prose imaginative composition which may or may not be based on history or fact.

The different types of fiction are the following:

Short story- a relatively brief prose fictional composition based in a single main incident which
is designed to produce a single dominant impression.

Novel- a prose fictional work of considerable length that deals with a series of complications
involving characters in a particular setting.

Drama- a composition in prose or verse designed for stage performance through mine and
dialogue.

Allegory- a symbolic fictional account conveying meaning/s beyond the literal

Element of Fiction

Plot
The plot is a series of events knit together following the principle of cause and effect. It is also
deemed to be an arrangement of incidents, the narrative structure, the organization of a
narrative, and the logical sequence of actions. A plot can be arranged and organized in two
ways, the first one is through Chronology-which means that the events are arranged according
to time and space, and the second one is through Climax-which means that the events are
organized according to order of suspense.

There are also two types of plot, the first one is called organic, which means the story sprouted
from just one conflict; and the second one is episodic, which means there are two or more
sources of conflicts.

Conflict
Conflict is considered as the soul of the plot, and it is the tension between opposing forces in
the story. It can be external, which means that conflict is from outside forces; or internal which
means the conflict resides the main character.

Here are the types of conflicts:

 Physical-man vs. nature
 Social- man vs. man
 Psychological- man vs. self
 Cosmic- man vs. God

Character
Characters in the story are the moral agents of actions. They are the invented personages in
fiction.

There are two types of characters namely major and minor. Under major characters, we have
the protagonist, who is the central character where the story revolves; and the antagonist, who
prevents the protagonist in solving the conflict. Under minor characters we have foil, who has
the opposite traits of the main protagonist; the confidant, who serves as the friend of the
protagonist; and the background characters, who are not closely related with the protagonist.

We also have two kinds of character. The first one is round, which means the character was
able to undergo change, while the second one is called flat, which means there was no change
in the outlook and action of character.

Setting
The setting serves as the background of the story, may it be physical, mental, or spiritual. It
serves as the backdrop and sets the mood of the characters. There are three elements of
setting. The first one is time, which sets the duration of the events; next is place, which talks
about the locally; and the third one is atmosphere, which is the emotion or the mood.

Theme
Theme is considered as the central message of the story. It is the universal truth expressed in
the text.

Point of View
This pertains to the vantage point where the story is narrated. Below are the different types;

FIRST person- a principal character in the story is the one narrating it.
SECOND person (unlimited)- an indirect disclosure of the narrating self for characterization
and analysis
THIRD person-(limited) also known as the central intelligence point of view; the author choose
a character from whose consciousness the entire story is told
CAMERA EYE- presents the dialogues, and the incidents of a narrative like a mechanical
recording device.
REVOLVING-characterized by a narrative shift from one point of view to another
COMPOSITE point of view-gives a comprehensive view of the events and incidents in the
story through the different angles adapted by several narrating characters

Figurative Language
1. Synecdoche-an association of some important part with the whole it represents.
Example: the face who launched a thousands ships
2. Simile- an indirect association
Example: she like a flower
3. Personification-given human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc.)
Example: the sun is looking down on me.
4. Oxymoron- a self-contrasting statement
Example: Loud silence
5. Metonymy- an association wherein the name of something is substituted by something
that represents it.
Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate
6. Metaphor- a direct comparison
Example: you are the sunshine of my life
7. Irony- the contrast between what was expected and what actually happened
Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break
8. Hyperbole- an exaggeration
Example: Cry me a river
9. Euphenism- Creating a positive connotation out of something negative.
Example: Loved child (illegitimate child)
10. Ellipsis- omission of words in a sentence
Example: She walked away and so the world turns…
11. Asyndeton- Not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions)
Example: No retreat, no surrender

12. Apostrophe- A direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away
Example: Love, please come and take me.

WORD LITERATURES

WORKS AUTHORS
The Epic of Gilamesh LEQI-UNNINNI, SCRIBE (700BCE)
Lliad HOMER, (800 BCE)
Odyssey
The Analects CONFUCIUS (551-479 BCE)
The Oresteia AESCHYLUS (496-406 BCE)
Agamemnom
Theban Plays: SOPHOCLES (496-406 BCE)
Oedipus Rex
Oedipus at Colonus
Antigone
Alcestis EURIPIDES 9484-406 (BCE)
Medea
Hippolytus
The Trojan Women
Electra
The Histories HERODOTUS (484-425 BCE)
The History of the Pelipennesian War THUCYDIDES (470-400 BCE)
The Art of War SUN-TZU (450-380 BCE)
Lysistrata ARUSTOPHANES (448-388 BCE)
The Clouds
The Birds
The Republic PLATO (428-348 BCE)
Ethics ARISTOTLE ( 384-322 BCE)
Politics
Poetics

The Book of Mencius MENCIUS (400-320 BCE)

The Ramayana VALMIKI (300 BCE)
The Mahabharata VYASA (200BCE)
The Bhagavad Gita ANONYMOUS (200BCE)
Records of the Grand Historian SSU-MA CHE’IEN (145-86BCE)
Of the Nature of Things LUCRETUS 1(100-50 BCE)
The Aeneid VIRGIL (70-19 BCE)
Mediations AURELIUS, MARCUS (121-180)
The Confessions SAINT AGUSTINE (354-430)
The Cloud Messenger KALIDASA (400)
Sakuntala/Shakuntala
The Koran MUHAMMAD (650)
The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriach HUI-NENG (638-713)
Shah Nameh FIRDAUS (940-1020)
The Pillow Book SEI SHONAGON (965-1035)
The Tale of Genji ( First Novel in the MURSAKI, LADY SHIKIBU (976-1015)
world)
The Rubaiyet KHAYAM, OMAR (1048)
The Divine Comedy ALIGHIERI, DANTE (12655-1321)
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms KUAN-CHUNG, LUO (1330-1400)
The Canterbury Tales CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (1342-1400)
1001 Nights/Arabian nights ANONYMOUS (1500)
The Prince MACHIAVELLI, NICOLO (1469-1527)
Gargantua and Pantagruel RABELAIS, FRNCOIS (1483-1553)
Journey to the West WU CHE’ENG-EN (1500-1582)
Essays-Apology for Raymond Sebond MONTAIGNE, MICHEI (1533-1592)
Don Quixote SAAVEDRA. MIGUEL DE CERVANTES (1547-1616)
Romeo and Juliet SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)
Much Ado About Nothing
Twelfth Knight
Merchant of Venice
Devotions DONNE, JOHN (1573-1631)
Sermons
First and Second Anniversaries
Dialogue Concerning The Two Chief GALILEI, GALILEO (1574-1642)
World Systems
Leviathan HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1
Discourse on Method DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)
Paradise Lost MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674)
Lycidas
Areopagitica
The School for Wives MOLIERE (1622-1673)
Rartuffe
The Would-Be Gentleman
Thoughts PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
Pilgrims BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688)
Second Treatise of Government LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
The Narrow Road to the Deep North BASHO, MATSU (1644-1694)
Robinson Crusoe DEFOE, DANIEL (1660-17310
Gulliver’s Travel SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667-1745)
Candid VOLTAIRE (1694-17178)
An Enquiry Concerning Human HUME,DAVID (1711-1776)
Understanding
Tom Jones FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754)
Confessions ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
The Social Contact
Tristram Shandy STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768)
The Life of Samuel Johnson BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795)
Basic Documents in American History JEFFERSON, THOMAS
Faust WOLFGANG VON GOETHE, JOHANN
A Poison Tree BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827)
The Prelude WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770-1850)
The Ancient Mariner COLEERIDE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834)
Christabel
Kublai Khan
Pride and Prejudice AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817)
Emma
The Read and the Black STENDHAL (1783-1842)
Pere Goriot DE BALZAC, HONORE (1799-1850)
Eugenie
Cousin Bette
Self Reliance EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882)
The Scarlet Letter HAWTHORNE,NATHANIEL (1804-1864)
Democracy in America DE TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS (1805-1859)
On Liberty MILL.JOHN STUART (1806-1873)
The Subjection of Women
The Voyage of the Beagle DARWIN, CHARLES (1809-1859)
The Origin of the Species
Dead Souls GOGOL, NIKOLAI (1809-1882)
The Cask of Amontillado POE, EDGAR ALLAN (1809-1849)
Annabel Lee
Vanity Fair THACKERY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE (1811-1863)
Pickwick Papers DICKENS, CHARLES (1812-1870)
The Tale of Cities
A Christmas Carol
David Copperfield
Great Expectations
The Warden TROLLOPE, ANTHONY (1815-1882)
Jane Eyre BRONTE, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855)
Wuthering Heights BRONTE, EMILLY (1818-1848)
Walden THROREAU, HENRY DAVID (1817-1862)
Civil Disobedience
Fathers and Sons TURGENEY, IVAN (1818-1883)
The Communist Manifesto MARX, KARL (1818-1883)
Moby Dick MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1891)
The Mill on the Floss ELIOT, GEORGE (1819-1880)
Middlemarch
Silas Marner
Leaves of Grass WHITMAN, WALT (1819-1892)
Madame Bovary FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880)
Crime and Punishment DOSTOYEVSKY, FYDOR (1821-1880)
Brothers Karamazov
War and Peace TOLSTOY, ELO (1828-1910)
Annakarenina
The Soul Selects Her Society DICKENSON, EMILY (1830-1886)
A Dimple in the Tomb
Huckleberry Finn TWAIN, MARK (1835-1910)
Tom Sawyer
The Mayor of Casterbridge HARDY, THOMAS (1840-1928)
The Interpretation of Dreams FRUED, SIGMUND (1856-1939)
Uncle Vanya CHEKOV, ANTON (1860-1904)
Three Sisters
The Cheery Orchard
The Age of Innocence WHARTON, EDITH (1862-1937)
The House of Mirth
The Road Not Taken FROST, ROBERT (1874-1963)
Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy
Evening
A Passage of India FORSTER, E.M (1879-1970)
Ulysses JOYCE, JAMES (1882-1941)
Mrs. Dalloway WOOF, VIRGINIA ( 1882-1941)
To the Lighthouse
Orlando
Sons and Lovers LAWRENCE, DFAVID HERBERT (1885-1930)
Lady Chatterley’s Lover
The Fox
A long Day’s Journey into the Night O’NEIL, EUGENE (1888-1953)
Mourning Becomes Electra
Waste Land ELIOT,T.S (1888-1965)
Brave New World HUXLEY, ALDOUS ( 1894-1963)
The Sound and the Fury FAULKNER, WILLIAM (1897-1962)
A Rose for Emily
Old Man and the Sea HEMINGWAY, ERNEST (1899-1962)
1984 ORWELL, GEORGE (1903-1950)
Animal Farm
The English Teacher NARAYAN, R.K
Waiting for Godot BECKETT, SAMUEL (1906-1989)
One Hundred MARQUEZ, GABRIEL GARCIA (1928-PRESENT)
Love in the Time of Cholera
Things Fall Apart ACHEBE, CHINUA (1930-PRESENT)
No longer At Ease
Sula MORRISSON (1931-PRESENT
The Beloved
Jazz
Song of Solomom

FILIPINO AUTHORS and their WORKS

WORKS AUTHORS
Magnificence and other stories ALFON, ESTRELLA
The Knifed Horizon ANGELES, CARLOS
A Stun of Jewels
How My Brother Leon Brought Home a ARGUILLA, MANUEL
Wife and Other Stories
Sunflower Poems AYALA, TITA LACAMBRA
The Archipelago BAUTISTA, CIRILO
Telex Moon
Sunlight on Broken Stones
What is an Educated Filipino BENITEZ, FRNCISCO
Dead Stars BENITEZ, FRNACISO
Stepping Stories
Half a Life
The Living and the Dead BRILLANTES, GREGORIO
A Wind Over the Earth
Distance to Andromeda
America is in the Heart BULOSAN, CARLOS
( Autobiographical)
The Laughter of My Father
The Voice of Bataan
The Power of the People
People in the War CORDERO-FERNANDO, GILDA
The Visitation of the Gods
The Butcher, The Baker, and the
Candlestick Maker
The Wedding Dance DAGUIO, AMADOR
No Certain Weather DEMETILLO, RICARDO
Barter in Panay
Daedalus and OtherPoems
Masks and Signatures
The Devil Flower ENRIQUEZ, EGMIDIO ALVAREZ DEMETILLO,
House of Images RICARDO
Palabas: Essays on Philippine Threater FERNANDEZ, DOREEN
Poems in Spanish and Ilocano FLORENTINO, LEONA
Now and at the Hour FORD, AIDA RIVERA
Fire Poem/Rain Poem GAMALINDA, ERIC
Popular Delusions
Planet waves
Poems GLORIA, ANGELA MANALANG
The Winds of April GONZALES N.V.M
A Season of Grace
Seven Hills Away
Children of the Ash-Covered Loam
The Bamboo Dancers
Children of the City GUERRERO, AMADIS MA
Dogeaters HAGEDOREN, JESSICA
Gangster of Love
Encanto IGLORIA, MARIA LUISA
Blood Sacrifice
Juanita Crus JALANDONI, MAGDALENA
Ang Dalaga sa Tindahan
Ermita JOSE, FRANCISO SIONIL
Poon
My Brother, My Executioner
The Woman Who Had Two Navels JOAQUIN, NICK
Summer Soistice
May Day Eve
Small Key LATORENA, PAZ
Desire
Sunset
Literature and Society LOPEZ, SALVADOR
Reevaluation LUMBERA, BIENVENIDO
Abot-Tanaw
My humble Opinion NAKPIL, CARMEN GUERRERO
Women Enough
The Virgin POLOTAN-TUVERA-KERIMA
The Hand of the Enemy

Mythology RAMOS. MAXIMO

The Creatures of Philippine Lower
Zita ROTOR, ARTURO
The Wound and the Scar
The Volcano SANTOS, BIENVENIDO
The Man Who ( Thought He) Looked Like
Robert Taylor
The Day the Dancers Came
Scent of Apples
Lidia SOTTO, JUSN CRISOSTOMO
His Native Coast TIEMPO, EDITH
The Tracks of Babylon
Blade of Fem
Valediction sa Hillcrest TINO, ROLANDO
Claudia and Her Mother
Man Songs VILLA, JOSE GARCIA
Footnote to Youth
Like the Molave ZULUETA DA COSTA, RAFAEL
Twisted ZAFRA, JESSICA

IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

EXPRESSION MEANING
Come hell of high water I am by your side come hell or high water.
This means the speaker would not leave the one
he/she is speaking with no matter what happens
Put your finger in the pie To finish the task at a much earlier time, everyone
must put his/her finger in the pie.
It means they must do their share in a particular
task.
Be in the limelight The soprano did her best to be in the limelight.
It means to be at the center of everybody’s
attention.
Flogging a dead horse Rallies and mass demonstrations against the RH
law are like flogging a dead horse.
It means that the work being done is futile.
Bring home the bacon The speech coach cheered his contestants. He
said “Bring the bacon!”
It means that he wants the team to win.
Between the devil and the deep blue sea This situation is hopeless!. It is like the devil and
the deep blue sea.
This situation is at its worst and the resolution is
seen to be unpleasant.
In your face The debater was criticized straight in her face.
To state something in an aggressive manner.
Under the weather She did not attend her class. She said that she
feels under the weather.
The person is sick.
Back to square one Her efforts are wasted since she is back to square
one.
The person has to start again from the beginning.
Hold your horses The commandant reminds his team hold their
horses until the right time comes.
Be patient.
Tickled your horses The news tickled her pink.
Made one every happy.
When pigs fly There is no chance of us being husband and wife,
unless when pigs fly.
Impossible to happen.
At the pink of health She looks beautiful and well rested. I assume she
is at the pink of health
Good health.

Phrasal Verbs
Add up Add
Bring about Cause to happen
Bring up Raise
Call off Cancel
Carry on Continue
Back up Support
Bring off Accomplish
Carry out Complete
Count in Include
Cut down Reduce
Fill out Complete (printed form)
Fill up Complete ( container0
Hang up Suspend
Hold up Rob
Pay off To complete payment
Touch up Repair
Turn down Refuse
Throw over Reject
Save up Accumulate
Put off Postpone
Down play Diminish
Figure out Understand
Breakdown Analyze