Lesson 2

Earth and Life Science

Engr. Mai Sasa
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical

and chemical properties
• classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
• a naturally occurring (not man-made or machine generated), inorganic
(not a byproduct of living things) solid with an orderly crystalline
structure and a definite chemical composition.
• are the basic building blocks of rocks.
 development

1. Do you consider water a mineral?

2. How about snowflake, or tube ice? Are these minerals?
 development
Mineral Name: Halite
Chemical composition: NaCl
Luster: Non-metallic – vitreous; transparent to translucent
Hardness: Soft (2-2.5)
Color: White
Streak: White
Crystal Form / Habit: Cubic
Cleavage: Perfect cubic
Specific Gravity: Light (2.2)
Other Properties: Salty taste; very soluble; produces reddish
spark in flame

We use minerals everyday!!!

 1
it is the quality and intensity of reflected light
exhibited by the mineral

• generally opaque • vitreous (glassy)

• exhibit a resplendent shine • adamantine(diamond-like)
similar to a polished metal • Resinous
• Silky
• Pearly
• dull
2. Hardness

1
measure of the resistance of a mineral (not
specifically surface) to abrasion

• designed by German geologist/mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812

• measures the scratch resistance of various minerals from a scale of 1
to 10
• easy.
• can be done anywhere, anytime, as
long as there is sufficient light to
see scratches.
• The test is convenient for field
geologists

• is qualitative, not quantitative.

• The test cannot be used to
accurately test the hardness of
industrial materials.
 1
It is the natural shape of the mineral before the
development of any cleavage or fracture.

also defines the relative growth of the crystal in three

dimensions, which includes the crystal’s length, width and
height.

Examples include prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy, reniform and equant.

A mineral that do not have a crystal structure is described as amorphous.
 Tourmaline (middle)
is prismatic.

Azurite and malachite

are often amorphous.
Pyrite has a
cubic form.

Image Source: https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Properties-of-Minerals/130

 1
Individual minerals can also display a variety of colors resulting from impurities
and also from some geologic processes like weathering.

Examples of coloring: quartz can be pink (rose quartz)

Streak, on the other hand, is the mineral’s color in

powdered form. It is inherent in almost every mineral,
and is a more diagnostic property compared to color.

Examples of streak: pyrite (FeS2) exhibits gold color

but has a black or dark gray streak.
 smooth, flat surfaces

1
the property of some minerals to break along specific planes of weakness to form

When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is described by the
number of cleavage directions, the angle(s) at which they meet, and the quality of
cleavage (e.g. cleavage in 2 directions at 90°).

Cleavage is different from habit; crystal habit forms as the mineral is growing, relying
on how the individual atoms in the crystal come together while cleavage develops after
the crystal is formed.
the ratio of the density of the mineral and the density of water

an equal amount of water (SG 1).

1
This parameter indicates how many times more the mineral weighs compared to

For example, a bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh ten times more than a
bucket of water.
• Magnetism
• Odor
• Taste
• Tenacity
• reaction to acid
• etc.
1
For example: magnetite is strongly magnetic; sulfur has distinctive smell;
halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in powdered
form;
 Chemical
Example Primary Occurrence
Composition
Quartz*
All rock types
Element + SiO4 Olivine*
Igneous, Metamorphic
Talc
minerals containing the two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust,
namely, silicon and oxygen.

When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron
– the fundamental building block of silicate minerals.

Over 90% of rock-forming minerals belong to this group.

 Chemical
Example Primary Occurrence
Composition
Hematite
Element + O2
Magnetite
Chromite

minerals composed of oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more metal ions
 Chemical
Example Primary Occurrence
Composition
Gypsum*
Element + SO4 Barite Sedimentary rocks
Anhydrite*

–minerals containing sulfur and oxygen in the form of the (SO4)- anion
 Chemical
Example Primary Occurrence
Composition
Pyrite
Element + S2 Galena Sedimentary Rocks
Bornite

minerals containing sulfur and a metal; some sulfides are sources of economically

important metals such as copper, lead, and zinc.

 Chemical
Example Primary Occurrence
Composition
Calcite*
Element + CO3 Dolomite* Sedimentary rocks
Malachite

minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2

anion combined with other elements

 Chemical Primary
Example
Composition Occurrence
Gold
Element
Bismuth
Diamond

minerals that form as individual elements

a. Metals and Intermetals – minerals with high thermal and electrical

conductivity, typicallywith metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead)

b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)

c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)

 Chemical
Example Primary Occurrence

halides
Composition
Chlorine
Element + Halogens Fluorine Sedimentary rocks
Halite*

minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more metals

Rocks are classified on the basis of the mode of formation.
The three rock types are:
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
 rocks that are formed from the solidification of molten rock material (magma or lava).

Molten rock material can solidify below the surface of the earth (plutonic igneous rocks) or at the
surface of the Earth (volcanic igneous rocks). Minerals are formed during the crystallization of
the magma.

crystallize below Earth's surface, and the slow

cooling that occurs there allows large crystals
to form

erupt onto the surface, where they cool

quickly to form small crystals.
Igneous rocks are also classified according to silica content: felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic.
felsic: also called granitic; >65% silica, generally light-colored
intermediate: also called andesitic; 55-65% silica; generally medium colored (medium gray)
mafic: also called basaltic; 45-55% silica; generally dark colored
ultramafic: <45% silica; generally very dark colored; composed mainly of olivine and pyroxene
which are the major constituents of the upper mantle
 Sedimentary rocks
These are rocks that formed through the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of
sediments. They generally form at surface or near surface conditions.

Sedimentary processes at or near the surface of the Earth include: weathering of rocks, sediment
transport and deposition, compaction and cementation

Strata: >1cm is called bedding and anything less is called lamination; layering is the result of a change
in grain size and composition; each layer represents a distinct period of deposition.
Fossils: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks
∙ Non-clastic / Chemical/Biochemical – derived from sediments that precipitated from concentrated
solutions (e.g. seawater) or from the accumulation of biologic or organic material (e.g. shells, plant
material). They are further classified on the basis of chemical composition.
∙ Clastic/terrigenous - form from the accumulation and lithification of sediments derived from the
breakdown of pre-existing rocks. They are further classified according to dominant grain size.
1. Conglomerate on top left relatively
large and rounded clasts
as compared to the angular clasts of
the breccia on top right.

2. Sandstone middle left with visible

grains and prominent
layering and claystone on middle right
with several
embedded fossils.

3. Non-clastic sedimentary rocks

limestone on bottom left and
coquina on bottom right.
 Metamorphic rocks
rocks that form from the transformation of pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic
rocks) through the process of metamorphism.

• can involve changes in the physical and chemical properties of rocks in response to heat, pressure, and
chemically active fluids.
• commonly formed underneath the earth

• Heat as the main factor • Pressure as main factor

• Occurs on a relatively small scale: around the vicinity of • Occurs in a regional/large scale
intruding magma
• Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks (e.g. hornfels)
Foliated rocks:
• from shale as precursor rock.
• Metamorphic grade increases (from slate
to gneiss) as pressure increases.

Non-foliated rocks:
• Quartzite is a metamorphic rock formed
when quartz-rich sandstone or chert has
been exposed to high temperatures and
pressures.
• Marble is formed through the
metamorphism of limestone or dolostone;
traces of fossils/remains are obscured by
recrystallization.
 The rock cycle
illustrates how
geologic processes
occurring both at the
surface and underneath
the Earth’s surface can
change a rock from
one type to another.
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how rocks
undergo weathering
∙ occurs as a response to the low
pressure, low temperature, and water
and oxygen-rich nature of the Earth’s
surface.

∙ breaking down or dissolving of rocks

and minerals on Earth’s surface

∙ Water, acids, salt, plants, animals,

and changes in temperature are all
agents of weathering and erosion
 (or mechanical weathering)
disintegrates rocks, breaking them into smaller pieces. The processes that lead to the
mechanical disintegration of rocks:
Frost wedging Abrasion
when water gets inside the joints, alternate freezing and wearing away of rocks by constant collision of loose
thawing episodes pry the rock apart. particles
 (or mechanical weathering)
disintegrates rocks, breaking them into smaller pieces. The processes that lead to the
mechanical disintegration of rocks:
Salt crystal growth Biological activity
force exerted by salt crystal that formed as water evaporates plants and animals as agents of mechanical weathering
from pore spaces or cracks in rocks can cause the rock to fall
apart.
 decomposes rocks through chemical reactions that change the original rock-forming
minerals. The major processes of chemical weathering are as follows:

Dissolution Hydrolysis
dissociation of molecules into ions; common example change in the composition of minerals when they react
includes dissolution of limestone in water with water
decomposes rocks through chemical reactions that change the original rock-forming
minerals. The major processes of chemical weathering are as follows:

Oxidation reaction
between minerals and oxygen dissolved in water
– areas that are cold and dry tend to have slow rates of
chemical weathering and
weathering is mostly physical; chemical weathering is
most active in areas with high temperature
and rainfall
– the minerals that constitute rocks have different
susceptibilities to weathering.
- rate of weathering is affected by the presence of joints,
folds, faults, bedding planes through which agents of
weathering enter a rock mass
- weathering occurs more quickly on a steep slope than on
a gentle one
length of exposure to agents of weather determines the
degree of weathering of a rocks
 Assignment:
Refer to the posted module in the classroom.