Series and parallel ac networks

Impedance and phasor diagram

Resistive elements

For the purely resistive circuit of Fig. 6.1, the voltage and current are in phase and
the magnitude is

Fig. 6.1: Resistive ac circuit

In phasor form
where V = 0.707 Vm

Applying Ohm’s law and using phasor algebra, we have

Since i and v are in phase, the angle associated with i also must be 0º. To satisfy this
condition, θR must equal 0º. Substituting θR = 0º, we find.

So that in the time domain,

In polar form the phase relationship between the voltage and the current of a resistor is

ZR having both magnitude and an associated angle is referred to as the impedance of a

resistive element. It is measured in ohms. Impedance is a measure of how much the
element will impede the flow of charge through the network.

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It is often helpful in the analysis of networks to have a phasor diagram, which shows at
a glance the magnitude and phase relations among the various quantities with in the
network. Phasor diagram of a resistive ac network is shown in Fig 6.2 (c). and 6.3 (c).

Example 6.1: Using complex algebra, find the current i for the circuit of Fig. 6.2 (a).
Sketch the waveforms of v and i.

Fig. 6.2 (a) Fig. 6.2 (b) Fig. 6.2 (c)

Waveform of voltage and current and phasor diagram are shown in Fig.6.2 (b) and 6.2(c).

Example 6.2: Using complex algebra, find the voltage v for the circuit of Fig. 6.3 (a).
Sketch the waveforms of v and i.

Fig. 6.3 (a) Fig. 6.3 (b) Fig. 6.3 (c)

Waveform of voltage and current and phasor diagram are shown in Fig.6.3 (b) and 6.3(c).

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Inductive reactance

For a pure inductor of Fig. 6.4 (a), the voltage leads the current by 90, and the reactance
of the coil XL is determined by L.

Fig. 6.4 (a) By ohm’s law

Since v leads i by 90, i must have an angle of - 90 associated with it. To satisfy this
condition L = +90. Substituting L = +90, we obtain

So that in time domain

In polar form inductive reactance, which is the phase relationship between the voltage
and the current of an inductor is

ZR having both magnitude and an associated angle is referred to as the impedance of a

inductive element. It is measured in ohms. Inductive reactance is a measure of how
much the element will control or impede the level of current through the network.

Example 6.3: Using complex algebra, find the current i for the circuit of Fig. 6.5 (a).
Sketch the waveforms of v and i.

Fig. 6.5 (a) Fig. 6.5 (b) Fig. 6.5 (c)

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Example 6.4: Using complex algebra, find the voltage v for the circuit of Fig. 6.6 (a).
Sketch the waveforms of v and i.

Fig. 6.6 (a) Fig. 6.6 (b) Fig. 6.6 (c)

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Capacitive reactance

For a pure capacitor of Fig. 6.7, the current leads the voltage by 90 and the reactance of
the capacitor XC is determined by 1/C.

Fig. 6.7 By ohm’s law

Since i leads v by 90, i must have an angle of + 90 associated with it. To satisfy this
condition C = -90. Substituting C = -90, we obtain

So that in time domain

In polar form capacitive reactance, which is the phase relationship between the voltage
and the current of a capacitor is

ZC having both magnitude and an associated angle is referred to as the impedance of a

capacitive element. It is measured in ohms. Capacitive reactance is a measure of how
much the element will control or impede the level of current through the network.

Example 6.5: Using complex algebra, find the current i for the circuit of Fig. 6.8 (a).
Sketch the waveforms of v and i.

Fig. 6.8 (a) Fig. 6.8 (b) Fig. 6.8 (c)

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Example 6.6: Using complex algebra, find the current i for the circuit of Fig. 6.9 (a).
Sketch the waveforms of v and i.

Fig. 6.9 (a) Fig. 6.9 (b) Fig. 6.9 (c)

Impedance diagram
An angle is associated with resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance, each
can be placed on a complex plane diagram, as shown in Fig. 6.10. For any network, the
resistance will always appear on the positive real axis, the inductive reactance on the
positive imaginary axis, and the capacitive reactance on the negative imaginary axis. The
result is an impedance diagram that can reflect the individual and total impedance levels
of an ac network.

Fig. 6.10
Once the total impedance of a network is determined, its magnitude will define the
resulting current level, whereas its angle will reveal whether the network is primarily
inductive or capacitive or simply resistive.

For any configuration (series, parallel, series-parallel, etc), the angle associated with the
total impedance is the angle by which the applied voltage leads the source current. For
inductive networks θT will be positive, whereas for capacitive networks θT will be
negative.

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SERIES CONFIGURATION

The overall properties of series ac circuits (Fig. 6.11) are the same as those for dc
circuits. For instance, the total impedance of a system is the sum of the individual
impedances:

Fig. 6.11 (a) Fig. 6.11 (b)

For the representative series ac configuration of Fig. 6.12 having two impedances, the
current is the same through each element (as it was for the series dc circuits) and is
determined by Ohm’s law:

and
Fig. 6.12

The voltage across each element can then be found by applying of Ohm’s law:

and

Kirchhoff’s voltage law can then be applied. Note that we are now dealing with the
algebraic manipulation of quantities that have both magnitude and direction.

or

The power to the circuit can be determined by

where θT is the phase angle between E and I.

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For a series resistance and inductance (R-L) circuit, Z1 = R and Z2 = j XL = j ωL

Then, ZT = R + j XL = R + j ωL

So, the magnitude of the total impedance, ZT = √(R2 + XL2)

and the phase angle, θT = tan-1 (XL/R)

Therefore, (Impedance)2 = (Resistance)2 + (Reactance)2

and tan (θT) = (Reactance) / (Resistance)

For a series resistance and capacitance (R-C) circuit, Z1 = R and Z2 = 1/(jXC) = -j/ωC

Then, ZT = R - j XC = R - j /ωC

So, the magnitude of the total impedance, ZT = √(R2 + XC2)

and the phase angle, θT = tan-1 (-XC/R)

Therefore, (Impedance)2 = (Resistance)2 + (Reactance)2

and tan (θT) = (- Reactance) / (Resistance)

For a series resistance, inductance and capacitance (R-L-C) circuit,

Z1 = R, Z2 = j XL = j ωL and Z3 = 1/(jXC) = -j/ωC

Then, ZT = R + j XL - j XC = R + j ωL - j /ωC

= R + j (XL - XC) = R + j (ωL - 1/ωC)

So, the magnitude of the total impedance, ZT = √(R2 + XL2 + XC2)

and the phase angle, θT = tan-1 [(XL – XC)/R]

Therefore, (Impedance)2 = (Resistance)2 + (Total Reactance)2

and tan (θT) = (Total reactance Reactance) / (Resistance)

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Example: Determine the input impedance to the series network of Fig. 12(a). Draw the
impedance diagram.

Fig. 6.12 (a) Fig. 6.12 (b): Impedance diagram

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AC through series Resistance and Inductance (R-L circuit)

A pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance L are shown connected in
series in Fig 6.13.

Fig. 6.13 (a): Series R-L circuit. Fig. 6.13 (b): Applying phasor notation to
the network of Fig. 15.26.

Phasor Notation

Total impedance, ,

and

Current ,
Fig. 6.15 (c): Impedance diagram.

or,

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 and

Phasor diagram: Note that for the phasor diagram of Fig. 6.16, I is in phase with the
voltage across the resistor and lags the voltage across the inductor by 90°.

Power: The total power in watts delivered to the circuit is

Fig. 6.16

where E and I are effective values and θT is the phase angle between E and I, or

and

where is the phase angle between , and is the phase angle between .

Power factor: The power factor PF of the circuit is cos 53.13° = 0.6 lagging, where
53.13° is the phase angle between E and I.

If we write the basic power equation P = EI cos θ as follows:

, PF =

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AC through Resistance and Capacitance (R-C circuit)

A pure resistance and a pure inductive coil of inductance C are shown connected in series
in Fig 6.17.

Fig. 6.18 (a) Fig. 6.18 (b) Fig. 6.18 (c)

Total impedance, ,

Therefore, Impedance diagram is shown in Fig. 6.16 (c)

Voltage supplied by the source, ,

Voltage across resistor and capacitor,

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage law,

Fig. 56.16 (d)

Phasor diagram: The current I is in phase, Fig. 6.16(d), with the voltage across the
resistor and leads the voltage across the capacitor by 90º.

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A plot of all the voltages and current appears in Fig. 6.16 (e). Current i and voltage across
R, vR, in phase and voltage across capacitor, vc, lags by 90º.

Fig. 6.16 (e)

Power: The total power in watts delivered to the circuit is

Finally,

Power factor: The power factor of the circuit is

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Resistance, Inductance and Capacitances in series

A pure resistance, an inductance and a capacitance are shown connected in series in Fig
6.17 (a) and in phasor notation in Fig. 6.17 (b).

Fig 6.17 (a) Fig 6.17 (b)

Total impedance, ,

Impedance diagram is shown in Fig 6.17 (c).

Fig. 6.17 (c)

Current I,

Voltage across resistor, inductor and capacitor,

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Using KVL or,

Phasor diagram: The phasor diagram of Fig. 6.17 (d) indicates that the current I is in
phase with the voltage across the resistor, lags the voltage across the inductor by 90°, and
leads the voltage across the capacitor by 90°.

Time domain:

A plot of all the voltages and the current of the circuit appears in Fig. 6.17 (e).

Fig. 6.17 (d) Fig. 6.17 (e)

Power: The total power in watts delivered to the circuit is

or,

Power factor: The power factor of the circuit i

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Example: For the circuit of Fig. 6.18.

a. Calculate I, VR, VL, and VC in phasor form.

b. Calculate the total power factor.
c. Calculate the average power delivered to the circuit.
d. Draw the phasor diagram.
e. Obtain the phasor sum of VR, VL, and VC, and show that it equals the input voltage E.
f. Find VR, VL and VC using the voltage divider rule.

Fig. 6.18 (a)

a. Combining common elements and finding the reactance of the inductor and capacitor,

Fig. 6.18 (b)

Redrawing the circuit using phasor notation results Fig. 6.18 (b).

Total impedance

Current

The voltage across the resistor, inductor, and capacitor can be found using Ohm’s law:

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 b. The total power factor, determined by the angle between the applied voltage E
and the resulting current I, is 48.16°

c. The total power in watts delivered to the circuit is

d. The phasor diagram appears in Fig. 6.18 (c).

e. The phasor sum of VR, VL, and VC is

Fig. 6.18 (c).

and

and

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Example: For the circuit of Fig. 15.119:
a. Find the total impedance ZT in polar form.
b. Draw the impedance diagram.
c. Find the current I and the voltages VR and VL in phasor
form.
d. Draw the phasor diagram of the voltages E, VR, and
VL, and the current I.
e. Verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the closed loop.
f. Find the average power delivered to the circuit.
g. Find the power factor of the circuit, and indicate
whether it is leading or lagging.
h. Find the sinusoidal expressions for the voltages and
current if the frequency is 60 Hz.
i. Plot the waveforms for the voltages and current on the
same set of axes.

Example: Example: For the circuit of Fig. 15.119:

a. Find the total impedance ZT in polar form.
b. Draw the impedance diagram.
c. Find the current I and the voltages VR and Vc in phasor
form.
d. Draw the phasor diagram of the voltages E, Vc, and
VL, and the current I.
e. Verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the closed loop.
f. Find the average power delivered to the circuit.
g. Find the power factor of the circuit, and indicate
whether it is leading or lagging.
h. Find the sinusoidal expressions for the voltages and
current if the frequency is 60 Hz.
i. Plot the waveforms for the voltages and current on the
same set of axes.
Repeat Problem 7 for the circuit of Fig. 15.120, replacing
VL with VC in parts (c) and (d).

Example: For the circuit of Fig. 15.122:

a. Find the total impedance ZT in polar form.
b. Draw the impedance diagram.
c. Find the value of C in microfarads and L in henries.
d. Find the current I and the voltages VR, VL, and VC in
phasor form.
e. Draw the phasor diagram of the voltages E, VR, VL,
and VC, and the current I.
f. Verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the closed loop.
g. Find the average power delivered to the circuit.
h. Find the power factor of the circuit, and indicate
whether it is leading or lagging.

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i. Find the sinusoidal expressions for the voltages and
current.
j. Plot the waveforms for the voltages and current on the
same set of axes.

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