Module 6

FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

LESSON 1: UNIFORM FLOW CONDITION IN OPEN
CHANNEL

OVERVIEW
In general, the term open channel is used to define all natural streams and artificial
canals having surfaces exposed to the pressure of the atmosphere. Also, all forms of
closed conduits that flow partially full are categorized as open channels. Unlike in pipes
flowing full and flowing under pressure, the flow in an open channel depends upon the
slope of the streambed as well as the slope of the water surface.

COURSE MATERIALS
The main types of open channels are:
a) artificial canals or flumes.
b) natural streams or rivers, brooks, estuaries, etc.
c) sewers, tunnels and pipelines not flowing full.

The analytical solution of open channel problems is far more complicated than in the
case of pressure pipes. This is primarily attributed to the wide range of conditions that is
encountered in the treatment of open channel problems. Generally, pipes are round, but
the cross section of an open channel may be of any shape, from regular geometric
figures to the irregular forms of natural channels. In the case of surface roughness, the
degree in pipes ordinarily ranges from that of new, smooth metal or wood pipe to that of
old, corroded metal pipe; in open channels the type of surface varies from that of
smooth timber or metal flume to that of rough, irregular beds of natural rivers. Under
these circumstances, the derivation of formulas used to define general flow conditions in
an open channel is usually very difficult.

There are two types of flow in open channel

1) Uniform flow
2) Non-uniform flow

UNIFORM FLOW CONDITION IN OPEN CHANNEL

Figure 1 shows an open channel flowing under steady, continuous, and uniform
conditions. The essentials properties of uniform flow in an open channel are:

a) Uniform depth : d1 = d2 = depth at any section

b) Uniform area : A1 = A2 = area at any section
c) Uniform velocity : V1 = V2 = velocity at any section
d) Equal slope of energy gradient, streambed and water surface : S = So = Sw.s.
where:
S = hf /L , is the slope of energy gradient
S , is the slope of the streambed
Sw.s. , is the slope of the water surface or hydraulic gradient
 Energy Gradient

hf
V12/2g
w.s. V22/2g

d1 V1
V2 d2 A

Z1
L Z2 Flow Section

(1) channel bed (2)

Figure 1. Energy in Open Channel

The energy equation written between sections (1) and (2) gives

E1 = E2 + hf

where E1 = V12 / 2g + d1 + z1 = the total energy per unit weight at section (1)
E2 = V22 / 2g + d2 + z2 = the total energy at section (2)
hf = is the frictional loss between the two sections
L = is the length of the channel

The energy per unit weight in an open channel measured from the streambed is known
as the specific energy ES or

V2
Es  d
2g

1.0 Hydraulic Radius ; Wetted Perimeter

In any conduits, flowing full or partially full, the wetted perimeter P is the curve of
intersection of its wetted surface with a cross sectional plane. In Figure 2, the wetted
perimeter is the curve defined by the broken line “a-b-c-d”, while in circular pipe flowing
full, the wetted perimeter is the circumference of the circle , 𝜋𝐷 .

a L. S. d

b c

(a) trapezoidal canal (b) circular pipe

The hydraulic radius R of any flow section is defined as the ratio of the flow area A to
the wetted perimeter of the section, or

A
R
P

The formulas oftenly used in open channel problems are expressed in terms of the
hydraulic radius R. In open channels having irregular sections care must be observed in
the calculation of the area A and the wetted perimeter P as this will directly affect the
value of R, and so with the values of the velocity and the discharge.

2.0 Open Channel Formula for Uniform Flow

1) Manning’s Equation for Velocity

1
V= R 2/3 S ½
n

2) Chezy’s Equation for Velocity

V =C RS

where,

 according to Kutter and Ganguillet

0.00155 1
23  
C = S n
n 0.00155
1 (23  )
R S

 and, according to Bazin:

87
C =
m
1
R

3) The shearing stress between the flowing water and the channel’s surface.

𝜏= 𝑤𝑅𝑆

where:
n and m = roughness coefficient
V = mean velocity
S = slope of the energy gradient
A
R = = hydraulic radius
P
A = cross – sectional area of channel
P = wetted perimeter
w = unit weight of water (fluid)

3.0 Alternate Stages of Flow

For a given discharge, it is condition where two stages depth of flow will occur with the
same specific energy (head) ES. These stages of flow are:

 Upper stage : a stage where in the stream has a larger depth of flow but with
smaller velocity;
 Lower stage : a stage where in the stream has a smaller depth of flow but
with higher velocity
 Energy Gradient
(0, ES)

V12/2g
w.s.

V22/2g

d1 d1

V1 dC
w.s.

d2
V2 d2

(0,0)
Lower stage Upper stage q

qmax

Figure 3. Alternate Stages of Flow

Depth-Energy-Discharge

In an open channel, the energy or the total head ES at any point in the stream is equal to
the sum of the velocity head and depth.

𝑉2
𝐸𝑠 = +𝑑
2𝑔

Thus 𝑉 = √2𝑔(𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑 )

let q = discharge per meter width of the channel

then q = A V = (1) d √2𝑔(𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑 )

or q = d √2𝑔 (𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑 )

In the graph of Figure 3, representing the above equation of “q” two points are evident :
(0,0) and (0, ES). The first point describes the condition of flow when the depth is zero
and the unit flow is accordingly zero. The second point defines the case when the depth
of flow is the same as the specific energy , d = ES, and the unit flow is zero. This second
condition is quite obvious since d = ES means V=0 and so a flow is not possible.
From the graph, the following important characteristics of channel flow may be
observed:
a) There is a depth of flow dC which maximizes unit flow q. This depth is called the
critical depth or critical stage of flow.
 b) For any value of the unit flow q between 0 and q max there are two possible epths
of flow, d1 and d2, occurring with the same specific energy ES . These are the
upper stage and lower stage of flow, respectively. Collectively, these two are
stages of flow are known as the alternate stages.

4.0 Critical Depth of Flow, dC ; Maximum discharge, 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙

a) Critical depth of flow 𝑑𝑐 expressed in 𝐸𝑠

The depth for maximum discharge with a given total head ES is called the “critical
depth” dC.

From equation: q = d √2𝑔 (𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑 )

Differentiate “q” with respect to “d”

𝑑𝑞 1 −1 1
= √2𝑔 [(𝑑 ) (𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑 ) 2 (−1) + (−1)(𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑 )2 ] = 0
𝑑𝑑 2

−𝑑 1
1 + (𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑 )2 = 0
2(𝐸𝑠 −𝑑 )2

−𝑑 + 2(𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑 ) = 0

−𝑑 + 2𝐸𝑠 − 2𝑑 = 0

2𝐸𝑠 = 3𝑑
2
𝑑= 𝐸𝑠
3

2
or 𝑑𝑐 = 𝐸𝑠
3

b) Critical depth of flow 𝑑𝑐 expressed in discharge

2
From equation: 𝑑𝑐 = 𝐸𝑠
3

3
also 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑑𝑐
2

Substitute this 𝐸𝑠 to the equation : q = d √2𝑔 (𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑 )

3
q = d √2𝑔 ( 𝑑 − 𝑑)
2

3𝑑−2𝑑
q = d √2𝑔 ( )
𝑔

q = d √𝑔𝑑

𝑞2 = 𝑑 2(𝑔𝑑 )
 3 𝑞2
𝑑 =
𝑔

3 𝑞2
or 𝑑𝑐 = √
𝑔
Note, if:
d1 > 𝑑𝑐 = depth is at upper stage (sub critical)
d2 < 𝑑𝑐 = depth at lower stage (super critical)
d = dC = critical depth

c) The maximum possible discharge per meter width of the channel is

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑔𝑑𝑐3

𝑉2
From 𝐸𝑠 = +𝑑
2𝑔

3
if 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑑𝑐 and d = dC
2

3 𝑉2
then 𝑑𝑐 = + 𝑑𝑐
2 2𝑔

𝑉2 𝑑𝑐
=
2𝑔 2
Note:
𝑉2 𝑑
 If = or 𝑉 = √𝑔𝑑 , the flow is at critical stage
2𝑔 2
𝑉2 𝑑
 If < or 𝑉 < √𝑔𝑑 , the flow is at upper stage
2𝑔 2
𝑉2 𝑑
 If > or 𝑉 > √𝑔𝑑 , the flow is at lower stage
2𝑔 2

d) Critical velocity, 𝑉𝑐

𝑉2 𝑑
If = or 𝑉 = √𝑔𝑑 , the flow is at critical stage
2𝑔 2

then 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔𝑑𝑐

e) Critical slope, 𝑆𝑐

The slope of channel bed at critical depth 𝑑𝑐 and flowing with critical velocity 𝑉𝑐
is known as the critical slope, 𝑆𝑐 . With the use of Manning’s Equation

𝑛2 𝑉 2
𝑆𝑐 = 4
𝑅 ⁄3

f) Critical depth for Non-Rectangular Section

𝑄2 𝐴3
The equation of critical depth is : = = 𝑓(𝑑𝑐 )
𝑔 𝐿
5.0 Optimum Channel Section :

The optimum open channel section or section with the greatest hydraulic efficiency (also
the most advantageous or most economical section) is the one which, for a given area
(A), slope (S), and roughness coefficient (n) will provide the greatest discharge.
Moreover, this section is the one having the smallest wetted perimeter.

1) Rectangular section

w.s.
Properties of Efficiency:
d a). b = 2d
d
b). R =
2
b

2) Trapezoidal Section

x Properties of Efficiency
w.s. 1) If side slope is not given:
a)  = 300
d
b) R =
2
S   S c) b = S
d) x = 2S
b 2) If side slope is given:
d
R=
2

3) Triangular Section

L
Property of Efficiency:

L =2d

4. Semi-circular Section

D
w.s, Property of Efficiency:

D
d d=
2
5. Circular Section

w.s.
Critical depth of flow: d = 94%D

r  r Section Properties:
D
d 1) Area with in the waterline section

360   2 1 2
A= r  r sin 
360 2

2) Wetted perimeter

360  
P= (2r )
360

Note:
1) Of all open channel cross-section, having a given area, the semi-circle has the
smallest wetted perimeter.
2) Of all trapezoidal section, for a given area, the half hexagon has the smallest
wetted perimeter.