Comprehensive Review and Comparative Analysis of Compensation

Networks for Capacitive Power Transfer Systems

Deepak Rozario, Student Member, IEEE, Najath Abdul Azeez, Member, IEEE,
and Sheldon S. Williamson, Senior Member, IEEE

Smart Transportation Electrification and Energy Research (STEER) Group

Advanced Storage Systems and Electric Transportation (ASSET) Laboratory
UOIT-Automotive Center of Excellence (UOIT-ACE)
Department of Electrical, Computer, and Software Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science
University of Ontario-Institute of Technology
ACE-2025, 2000 Simcoe Street North
Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada
Tel: +1/ (905) 721-8668, ext. 5744
Fax: +1(905) 721-3178
EML: [email protected]
URL: http://www.engineering.uoit.ca/; http://ace.uoit.ca/

Abstract— Contactless Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT) wireless power transfer has been carried out with the help
is one of the emerging fields in the area of wireless power of magnetics and hence coined the term inductive power
transfer. The system is fairly analogues to the inductive power transfer (IPT) [1] [2]. IPT has been used in numerous number
transfer system. The CPT systems was primarily used for low
power and small distance applications due to the development of applications right from consumer electronics [3][4] to EV
of unsafe voltages across the capacitive interface. However, the charging infrastructure. However, few fields discarded the
use of new compensation networks have enabled the system technology [5] cause of its Electromagnetic Interference is-
to be used for small, medium and long distance applications. sues. This led researchers to find alternative ways to transfer
There is no literature currently available that summarizes all power with contact.
the compensator’s available for the CPT network. This makes
it extremely difficult to find the best compensator which will Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT) system was an alternative
suit the requirement of the designer. The paper focuses on the solution that where engineered for wireless power transfer
need for compensation and analysis of the system. The results applications. The system is fairly analogous to its tradi-
of the analysis can be applied to any of the compensator’s tional counterpart. The CPT system works on the principle
that are discussed in the later section. A common ground of electric field coupling. Although, the system is still in
is then established which would help in finding the best
compensator’s available. Based on the results obtained, the its infancy stage, it finds its applications in various fields
best compensator for various distances and power applications [6][7][8]. CPT systems have unparalleled advantages over the
would be recommended. traditional IPT systems. Cause of its low power consumption,
it can be integrated with other circuits and has simplicity in
Keywords:Capacitive circuits, control systems, power construction.
electronics, surface charging, transportation.
The main aim of this paper is to review the various compen-
sation topologies available for capacitive power transfer sys-
I. INTRODUCTION
tem. The Compensation needed for Capacitive Power Trans-
In the recent decade, the advancements in the field of fer system are very different compared to Inductive Power
wireless power transfer has been remarkable. An opulence transfer system. To understand the need for compensation,
amount of resources and research that has been dedicated the principle of operation and important factors that affect
in harnessing this technology for real world applications. the CPT system are to be understood. Section II of the paper
The main aim of wireless power transfer (WPT) is to explains the important concepts, need for compensation.
discard the use of bulky power chords and eliminate human Section III is dedicated to detail the existing compensator
intervention. Use of WPT would avoid electrical hazards, and the comparison of the various compensators. Based on
caused due to the presence of moisture and insulation failure the analysis,the best compensator for small and large air-gap
thereby reducing the cost of maintaining direct connectors applications are proposed in section IV.
and provide greater convenience for charging. A WPT system
consists of a transmitter and a receiver. For almost a century,

978-1-5090-0873-5/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE 823

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 II. C APACITIVE P OWER T RANSFER S YSTEMS voltage. However, the voltage stress across the resonant
A. Need for Compensation components are equal.
When it comes to the CPT systems, there are various factors
Figure 1 details a general schematic of capacitive power to considered when we talk about compensation. As we
transfer system. The antennae used for the transmission proceed we would understand why unlike IPT systems,
of power vary for a CPT system. The antennae of the there are compensators for small air-gap and large air-gap
system constituent metal plates; the plates are coated with applications. The next section details the analysis procedure
dielectric material. When the transmitter and receiver plate of a resonant converter.
come in close proximity, an electric field is setup between the
two plates. Therefore, this results in a displacement current B. Analysis of the Capacitive Power Transfer System
flowing through coupling interface. The coupling capacitors The converters are used to energies the resonant tank of
of the system can be of any geometry. the system are usually class D inverters, class E inverters and
non-resonant PWM converters. For most of the applications
we use a full bridge inverter and hence a full bridge inverter
is considered for the analysis. The analysis steps are detailed
in this section and can be applied to any of the compensation
networks that will be discussed in section III.
The system as a whole capitalizes on the phenomenon
of resonance to transfer power. The analysis method used
very commonly for resonant converters is called sinusoidal
Fig. 1. Block Diagram of a CPT system approximation [9]. At resonance, the resonating network acts
The coupling capacitors are the main focus of this sec- as a filter eliminating higher order harmonics and forcing
tion. A pair of coupling capacitors constitute the coupling the current to be sinusoidal in nature which is in-phase the
interface. There is a pair of coupling capacitor to ensure output voltage of the inverter. Hence, current in the tank is
separation of the primary side and secondary side. when well approximated to its fundamental. The output of the tank
connected to an AC source the reactance of the capacitor drives the rectifier. As there is negligible harmonics in the
decreases with increases in frequency. The capacitor has a system, the harmonics of the rectifier voltage VR is neglected
frequency at which the reactance of the capacitor is equal and approximated to its first harmonic. The equivalent of the
to the reactance of the equivalent series inductance. At that CPT system is given in Figure 2. The system is divided into
particular frequency, the capacitor behaves resistive in nature.
This is known as self-resonant frequency which is in the
order of few MHz. In order to aid the capacitor to attain res-
onance at a much lower frequency a compensation network
is connected to the capacitive interface. The compensator
is usually an inductor or a combination of inductors and
Capacitors in series or parallel or series-parallel or a multi-
resonant configuration.
The capacitance of the capacitive interface is extremely
low and hence even with compensation network, the switch-
ing frequency of the circuit ranges between KHz-MHz Fig. 2. Equivalent Circuit
ranges. When an inverter is operated at such high frequen- three parts, they are controlled switch side, resonant tank and
cies, the efficiency of the converter is usually high cause rectifier with capacitive filter. The compensator along with
of switching losses. The on resistance ’RON ’ and drain the coupling interface constitute the resonant tank. Controlled
capacitance ’Cd ’ are important parameters to be taken into switch:
consideration. When the inverter is hard switched the losses 4Vdc
VS = (1)
in the inverters is given by 4Cd V2 s f where Vs is the supply π
voltage and f is the frequency of operation. These are the 2
losses of the inverter when the inverter is hard switched. Idc = Is (2)
π
This can be eliminated by making the CPT system a
Uncontrolled Rectified and Filter Capacitor
resonant system. The compensator forms a resonant circuit
with the capacitive interface at a much lower frequency than 4Vo
VR = (3)
the self-resonant frequency. The advantage of using the res- π
onant network is that the inverter can perform Zero voltage 2
Switching or Zero Current Switching. The soft switching of IRload = IR (4)
π
the inverter causes minimal losses and increase the efficiency
Equivalent Load:
of the system. At resonant frequency the voltage across the 8
capacitor and inductor are higher than that of the supply Re = R (5)
π
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 VR (s equation 10, where L is the equivalent inductance of the two
H(s) = (6)
VS (s) inductors is series and C is the equivalent capacitance of
therefore current iR can be obtained using the above equation the coupling interface which can be obtained from equation
12. The peak gain of the system is achieved at the resonant
VR Vs .H(s)
iR = = (7)
Re Re
therefore the voltage conversion ration (VCR) can be defined
by
Vo
V CR = (8)
Vdc
The efficiency can be derived from the above equations Fig. 3. Series Compensator
Pout frequency of the tank. The resonant capacitor is in series
η= (9) with the load forming a voltage divider circuit and therefore
Pin
the voltage gain of the circuit is always lower than 1. The
The resonant frequency of the converter is given as
Gain of the tank is equal to 1 only when the system is
1 operated at resonant frequency.
ω=√ (10)
LC
The Q factor of the converter : 2. Parallel and Series Parallel Resonators: The second type
of compensation used in CPT systems are parallel and series
ωL parallel compensation.
Q= (11)
R
The DC conversion ratio is approximately same as the
AC transfer function of the circuit evaluated at resonant
frequency.The resonant frequency of a system is denoted
by ω. It should be noted that larger the resistance smaller
the value of Q-factor. The resonance circuit highly depends
on its Q-factor. The Q-factor is a measure of the selectivity
of the resonant tank and the quality of merit in case of AC
circuits as it indicates the rate of energy loss of the capacitor.
High Q-factor indicates a lower rate of energy loss relative
to the stored energy of the resonator. The procedure for the
analysis of the CPT was discussed. The analysis procedure Fig. 4. Series-Parallel compensation networks
can be applied to converters which integrate the resonant Fig 4(a) give the general schematic of a composite parallel
compensators discussed in section III. resonant tank [12]. The network provides reactive compensa-
tion and gain. The voltage gain provided by the transformer
III. C OMPENSATION N ETWORKS in the primary side matching network provides voltage gain
There are various compensation networks that are used and allows low voltage devices to be used. The inductor in
in CPT system. The compensator’s are divided into two the circuit serves two purposes, it behaves as a compensator
sections: small air gap compensator’s and large air gap and interacts with the shunt capacitor providing additional
compensator’s. The capacitance of the capacitive interface voltage gain.
(CC ) is given as Figure 4(b) and 4(c) are series-parallel resonant tanks
CC1 CC2 [13]. In such compensators, all the elements of the circuit
CC = (12) are tuned to operate at a particular resonant frequency.
CC1 + CC2
These resonators are found in push pull inverters and class
A. Small Air Gap Applications E inverters . These resonant tanks of existing topologies are
The compensation networks discussed are used in small modified to fit the CPT technology.
air gap application, where the air gap distance is generally
less than 1mm. The networks are used in applications 3. Composite LCL Topology: There are two kinds of
where the value of the coupling interface ranges in the LCL topologies found in literature. The first kind of
nano-farad(nF) range. compensator shown in figure 5 is a composite series
compensator. Detailed analysis of the topology can be found
1. Single Resonator: when an inductor is connected in series in [14]. The system can achieve higher output than the
to the coupling capacitors they form a series compensator compensator mentioned in Fig 3.
circuit as shown in figure 3. The LC Compensator is also The topology increases the power factor of the interface
called as a traditional compensator’s as they are found to be and achieves multiplication of the load current with respect
used extensively in the early years of the CPT technology to the interface current therefore reducing the voltage stress
[10] [11]. The resonant frequency of the system is given by across the interface by a significant amount. This topology

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 Fig. 5. LCL Compensator

can achieve higher output without the need to increase

the frequency of operation. The system consists of three
resonant networks. All the elements in the topology must be
tuned to the resonant frequency of the system. The second
topology is modified and used for a class E converter [15].
The secondary LCL network increases the output power
transfer and serves as a band pass filter to reduce switching
harmonics propagation from the power converter to the load. Fig. 7. Voltage vs Capacitance (Capacitive interface in series with an
The algorithm to design the secondary side LCL network is inductor
detailed in [15]. The design of the LCL topology are quite developed across the capacitor is extremely high. Figure (7)
tedious. reveals the extremely high voltages built across the capacitive
interface as the capacitance decreases.
4. Modified LLC Topology: An LLC resonant topology is
Ic
modified to fit the capacitive interface. Very high efficiencies Vc = (15)
can be obtained by using this topology. ωCC
At resonance VC = VL From (13) we see that to reduce the
voltage stress across the capacitor, we must either increase
the capacitance of the coupling interface or increase the
frequency of operation. With increase in frequency, the
size of magnetics in the circuit reduces and therefore
increases the portability of the circuit. The drawback of
Fig. 6. Modified LLC Compensator
using very high frequencies is that the cost of switches,
The LLC topology grants versatility to the CPT system. gate drives and other monitoring equipment increases.
The network is similar to the LC resonant network, but At high frequencies, the parasitics in the circuit are more
has the magnetizing inductance of the transformer ’Lm ’ prominent and reduce the efficiency of the system drastically.
plays a role in the resonance phenomenon. The analysis of
the converter is detailed in [17] This configuration can be 2) Another reason to keep the voltage stress under
operated off resonance which is an additional benefit as the control is the reactive power developed by the capacitor.
voltage across the capacitor decreases. Vc2 .ω.A.ε0 .εr .(j + DF )
S= (16)
d
The reason why the following compensator’s are used
for small air gap applications are as follows: Where S is the total power across the capacitor. The
1) The main factor that is affected with distance is the imaginary part of the equation is the reactive power and
value of capacitance. Previously, the CPT system was is directly affected to the voltage developed across the
exclusively used in small air-gap applications. The main capacitor. As the voltage developed is high, which increases
aim was to achieve maximum capacitance between the the reactive power in the circuit, this reactive power must
coupling interface [17][18]. The capacitances recorded in be eliminated so that power can be transferred with high
literature for close distance applications were in the order efficiency.
of nano-farads. This was because
3)Another problem with the development of high voltages
1
Cα (13) is the dielectric breakdown that could occur across the
d coupling interface. The importance is to maintain the voltage
1 and electric field under the safe operating region.
Vc α (14)
C Therefore, due to the following reasons the compensator’s
Therefore, from the above two equations we see that as the discussed are suitable for small distance applications.
distance between the plates increases, capacitance decreases
and voltage across the capacitor increase. At resonance, B. Large Air Gap Applications
when the inductor is in series to the capacitor, the voltage Large air-gaps are generally rangers between 1cm - 30cm
across the capacitor is much larger than the supply voltage in the case of CPT systems. As we increase the distance,
(Figure(7)). Therefore, with low capacitance the voltage the value of capacitance decreases. The coupling capacitance

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 of such applications are in the order of few pico farads. selected, all the components must be designed to operate
The compensators for long distance applications are gener- at one particular frequency. Therefore we can calculate the
ally composite multi-resonant networks. The compensator’s values of the inductors Lr1 and Lr2
have lower voltage developed across the coupling interface,
acheive unity power factor at both input/output and eliminate Lr1 = 1/ωr2 Cr1 (21)
the reactive power in the circuit ensuring high efficiency of
Lr2 = 1/ωr2 Cr2 (22)
the system.
1. Double Sided LCLC Topology: is explained using the The output of this network is a constant voltage output and
figure 7. The double sided LCLC is nothing but the capacitive the operation of the system is to be at resonant frequency.
interface is placed in-between two LCLC resonators. The The reason why the following topologies are used for large
circuit is modified to form a double sided LCL network air gap applications is due to the presence of multi-resonant
[18]. Using the compact double sided LCL configuration we circuits. The main issue was the low value of coupling
can save space, however there is a compromise on mutual capacitance of the coupling interface and by connecting
capacitance of the system which in turn affects the voltage capacitors in parallel would be the best solution. Therefore,
gain of the converter. Analysis of both the configurations are in doing so, the coupling interface does not come in direct
detailed in [19]. The calculation of the resonant frequency contact with the inductor,thereby, reducing the voltage stress
and the components are given as: across the plates of the capacitor by a great extent.
IV. C OMPARISON OF C OMPENSATION N ETWORKS
There are many compensation networks in each of the
categories that are mentioned. Therefore, the commonly
used compensation networks are compared in this section.
The resonant tanks of the push pull inverter and the class
e inverter are omitted as the comparison is based for the
Fig. 8. Double Sided LCLC Compensator
tanks that can be interfaced with a half/full bridge. The
compensators are compared with respect to their sensitivity
Lr1 = 1/(ωr2 Cr1 , Lr1 = Lra (17) to distance, tolerance with respect to change in frequency,
Lr2 = 1/(ωr2 Cr2 , Lr2 = Lrb (18) power levels and control to find the best compensators for
various distances and power levels.
Cp1 = Cr2 + CC Crb /CC + Crb , Cp1 = Cp2 (19)
A. Sensitivity to Distance:
ωr = 2πf (20)
As the distance between the plates of the interface in-
All the networks components have to be tuned to a particular creases, capacitances obtained range in-between nF-pF .
resonant frequency. The output of the topology is a constant When the value of capacitance is in the order of Pico
current source. power is transferred over 150mm, with farads, it is not advisable to use a compensator in which
an efficiency of 90.7%. The compact configuration was an inductor of large value come in series contact with the
developed which transferred power across 150mm exhibiting coupling interface. The variation of efficiency with respect to
efficiencies as high as 85.87%. The network allows the change in capacitance is an important factor to be taken into
transfer of power over large distances and exhibits high consideration. From the graph in Fig.10 we notice that the
efficiency even under under misalignment conditions. compensators that are used for small distance applications
are in black, where as the large distance compensators are
in orange and blue.
Comparing the networks for small air gap applications:
the converters are resonant in nature and therefore all three
compensation circuits behave differently with change in
capacitance. We notice that the modified LLC topology has
Fig. 9. Dual LC Compensator minimum sensitivity with change in the value of capacitance.
The series-parallel has acceptable performance making the
2. Dual LC Topology: The schematic of the second series compensator the one with maximum sensitivity. With
compensation topology is as shown in figure 7. The slight change in the value of capacitance the efficiency of
topology has been developed for long distance power the system reduces drastically. The reason is because the
transfer application [16]. The circuit has two resonators circuits is unable to maintain resonance as the capacitance
Lr1 Cr1 and Lr2 Cr2 . value changes. The LLC exhibits the best performance as it
In such systems, the value of the coupling interface is two resonant frequencies.
given by equation (12). The capacitors Cr1 = Cr2 . The Comparing the networks for large air-gap applications:
values of capacitors Cr1 and Cr2 usually range between As the capacitive interface is not directly taking part
1nF - 100pF. Keeping in mind the values of the capacitors in the resonance phenomenon, the change in the value of

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 C. Power Levels:: is one of the most important part
when it comes to the design of the CPT system. In the case
of a CPT system high power would mean a power level
upwards of 3KW.
Small air-gap compensators: all the compensators avail-
able for small distance applications can be used for both low
and high power applications if the value of capacitance is in
the order of few nano-farads. If the value of capacitance is
in the order of picofarads, the compensation networks can be
used in very low power applications such that high voltages
are not built across the capacitive interface. The series -
parallel compensator [12] is proven to transfer 20 times
greater power than the highest value previously reported in
literature. Among them, the series and the series parallel
topologies cannot be used for high power applications as
the converter cannot be operated with a wide range of input
voltage/load variations and has large circulating currents.
Therefore, the modified LLC topology is chosen as it as
good reliability, high efficiency and can regulate the output
Fig. 10. Efficiency characteristics of various networks with change in for a wide variation in the input.
distance (capacitance)

capacitance does not affect the efficiency, thereby, having the

least sensitivity to distance and can be used in applications
in which the distance between the plates are in the order of
few tens of centimetres apart .

B. Tolerance with Respect to Change in Frequency: is

an important factor that affects the CPT system. As as
the networks are resonant tanks, they posses unique gain
characteristics with respect to frequency. The tolerance with
respect to frequency can be explained using the graph in
Fig(10). The series and parallel resonance networks are
optimized to work at a particular point. Operating these
resonant tanks at their resonant frequency is the most
efficient point of the system. For a LLC tank, it has two
resonant frequencies and working the system at its highest
resonant frequency will be more efficient. In the case of
the modified LLC tank, the resonant system has a unique
gain, which grants flexibility. The LLC tank can act as
either a buck or boost depending on the frequency of
operation. Working the converter off resonance decreases Fig. 11. Efficiency characteristics of various networks at various power
the voltage stress across the capacitor. The LCLC front levels
end compensator is a modification of the series resonant Large air-gap applications: the double sided LCLC and
compensator. dual LC networks can be used for both small and large
The double sided LCLC converter has appreciable distance applications. The topologies can be used for both
tolerance to change in frequency. Whereas, the dual LC low power and high power applications. The double sided
compensator has minimum tolerance to change in the LCLC topology has a constant current output whereas the
operational frequency. The dual LC converter is operated dual LC topology has a constant voltage output.
at its resonant frequency, at heavy loading conditions if
the switching frequency varies slightly from the resonant D. Power Flow Control and output voltage regulation:is the
frequency the gain and efficiency of the converter takes next most important part of the analysis. Controllers for
a nose dive. However, the double LCLC and dual LC resonant converters range from classical linear approach
converters are usually operated at fixed frequency as the designed to operate at a single point to non-linear complex
change in the capacitive interface does not affect the schemes. There are plenty of controllers available for
resonant frequency of operation. resonant converters they are Phase shifted controllers,
Variable duty cycle control (VDC), asymmetrical voltage

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 in an allowable range. They can be used for applications in
power levels ranging from few watts to few kilowatts. The
topologies possess high efficiencies with large air-gap and
under misalignment conditions between the coupling plate
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as they keep the voltage stress across the capacitive plates

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