Chapter 8 Language and Thought

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

1. What does the term “cognition” refer to?
a. focusing awareness of a narrow range of stimuli or events
b. mental processes involved in acquiring and using knowledge
c. widely shared beliefs that are transmitted socially across generations
d. use of language in a social context
ANSWER: b
2. Why was the study of cognition discouraged during the first half of the 20th century?
a. Cognition was not considered to be a psychological function.
b. Earlier studies using the method of introspection had yielded unreliable results.
c. Psychodynamic theories were too dominant in the field.
d. Language acquisition was viewed as an innate process that could not be studied empirically.
ANSWER: b
3. Which of the following is NOT a cognitive activity?

a. solving a problem
b. remembering something
c. blinking at something
d. making a decision
ANSWER: c
4. What led to the “cognitive revolution” in the 1950s?

a. renewed interest in the method of introspection
b. improved technology for addressing the questions associated with cognition
c. dissatisfaction with the limitations of behaviourism
d. rejection of psychoanalytic methods of analysis
ANSWER: d
5. What are the adjectives that describe the four essential characteristics of language?
a. symbolic, generative, phonemic, and structured
b. syntactic, symbolic, generative, and semantic
c. semantic, symbolic, structured, and generative
d. generative, rule-governed, phonemic, and syntactic
ANSWER: c
6. If you draw an arrow to indicate where someone should go, what function of language does the arrow serve?
a. generative
b. structural
c. symbolic
d. phonemic
ANSWER: c
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7. There are different sounds across languages that all represent the same thing. Which quality of language does
this reflect?
a. semantic
b. generative
c. cross-cultural
d. structural
ANSWER: a
8. What do we mean when we say that language is generative?

a. The symbols used in the language are arbitrary.
b. Language is both written and oral.
c. A limited number of symbols can be combined to produce an infinite variety of messages.
d. Sentences must be structured in a limited number of ways.
ANSWER: c
9. Language allows a person to express new ideas. Which quality of language does this reflect?
a. the symbolic dimension of language
b. the constructive function of language
c. the generative quality of language
d. the invention dimension of language
ANSWER: c
10. Language has rules that govern the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences. What quality of
language does this reflect?
a. phonemic
b. continuity
c. structured
d. generative
ANSWER: c
11. Imagine that a race of extraterrestrials came to earth. These extraterrestrials quickly learned to use Earth
words to convey meaningful messages, but they never created new combinations of words or learned how to use
rules to create meaningful sentences. Which statement best describes their communications?
a. They would have all the requirements for language.
b. They would not be generative or structured but would be symbolic and semantic.
c. They would lack all the essential elements of language.
d. They would not be symbolic or semantic but would be generative and structured.
ANSWER: b
12. Imagine that a race of extraterrestrials came to earth. These extraterrestrials quickly learned to use Earth
words to convey meaningful messages, and they were able to communicate effectively about unique aspects of
their planet in meaningful sentences. Which statement best describes their communications?
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a. They would not be generative or structured but would be symbolic and semantic.
b. They would have all the essential requirements for language.
c. They would not be semantic or generative but would be structured and symbolic.
d. They would not be symbolic or semantic but would be generative and structured.
ANSWER: b
13. How many phonemes does the English language use?

a. approximately 450,000 phonemes, one for each word
b. 26 phonemes, one for each letter of the alphabet
c. about 40 phonemes, corresponding to the letters of the alphabet plus several variations
d. all of the 100 or so phonemes that humans are capable of producing
ANSWER: c
14. Phonemes are the smallest units of which component of language?

a. meaning
b. sound
c. dialect
d. syntax
ANSWER: b
15. Which statement does NOT accurately describe phonemes?

a. A letter of the alphabet is represented by more than one phoneme if it has more than one
pronunciation.
b. All languages use all of the phonemes of which humans are capable.
c. Humans can produce about 100 phonemes.
d. Phonemes are combined into morphemes.
ANSWER: b
16. Three-year-old Isaiah used to say “mick” when he wanted a drink of milk. Now he can say “milk” quite
clearly. What language component has Isaiah improved in this instance?
a. morphemes
b. phonemes
c. syntax
d. linguistic heuristics
ANSWER: b
17. Last Halloween, 4-year-old Jillian called the decorations at her house “pukkins.” This year she can say
“pumpkins” when she describes them. What language component has Jillian improved in this instance?
a. morphemes
b. syntax
c. phonemes

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d. linguistic heuristics
ANSWER: c
18. Morphemes are the smallest units of which component of language?

a. syntax
b. sound
c. dialect
d. meaning
ANSWER: d
19. What is the smallest unit of meaning in a language?

a. phrase
b. morpheme
c. phoneme
d. word
ANSWER: b
20. What occurs when the word “oat” is changed to the word “boat”?
a. The number of phonemes increase, but the number of morphemes stays the same.
b. The number of phonemes and morphemes both increase.
c. The number of phonemes stay the same, but the number of morphemes increase.
d. The number of phonemes decrease, but the number of morphemes increase.
ANSWER: a
21. What occurs when the word “able” is changed to the word “table”?
a. The number of phonemes and morphemes both increase.
b. The number of phonemes decrease, but the number of morphemes increase.
c. The number of phonemes stay the same, but the number of morphemes increase.
d. The number of phonemes increase, but the number of morphemes stay the same.
ANSWER: d
22. What occurs when the word “jar” is changed to the word “jars”?
a. The numbers of phonemes and morphemes both increase.
b. The number of phonemes decreases, but the number of morphemes increases.
c. The number of phonemes increases, but the number of morphemes stays the same.
d. The number of phonemes stays the same, but the number of morphemes increases.
ANSWER: a
23. How many morphemes are in the word “unchangeable”?

a. one morpheme, for the entire word
b. four morphemes, one for each syllable

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c. nine morphemes, one for each letter of the alphabet used
d. three morphemes, one for each unit of meaning
ANSWER: d
24. Which word has the same number of morphemes as the word “unbeliever”?
a. triangle
b. silly
c. privilege
d. restated
ANSWER: d
25. What is the function of the component of language called semantics?

a. understanding the meaning of words and word combinations
b. creating novel messages from a finite number of symbols
c. specifying rules for how words can be arranged into sentences
d. correctly pronouncing the prefixes, suffixes, and root words of a language
ANSWER: a
26. What is the denotation of a word?

a. a complex interaction between the word’s phonology and syntax
b. its dictionary definition
c. its emotional overtones and secondary implications
d. the separate sounds that make up the word
ANSWER: b
27. What is the connotation of a word?

a. the separate sounds that make up the word
b. its emotional overtones and secondary implications
c. its dictionary definition
d. a complex interaction between the word’s phonology and syntax
ANSWER: b
28. What would change depending on whether you used a word in a literal sentence or a sarcastic sentence?
a. denotation
b. phonemes
c. connotation
d. morphemes
ANSWER: c
29. Which component of language allows you to recognize that “give” and “take” have opposite meanings?
a. generativity

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b. semantics
c. syntax
d. phonology
ANSWER: b
30. A declarative sentence must have both a noun phrase and a verb phrase. Which type of rule is this?
a. transformational rule
b. rule of syntax
c. rule of denotation
d. semantic rule
ANSWER: b
31. For which of the following do we use syntax?

a. combining morphemes into words
b. combining phonemes to form morphemes
c. arranging words into phrases and sentences
d. using words symbolically
ANSWER: c
32. Which statement best describes syntax?

a. Rules of syntax underlie all language use.
b. Syntax is the first component of language to be mastered by children.
c. If speakers can use a rule of syntax, they will also be able to verbalize it.
d. The process by which we learn the rules of syntax is well understood by psycholinguists.
ANSWER: a
33. Which type of rule is violated in the following “sentence”: “The nervous the stared thick at exam student”?
a. syntax
b. psycholinguistics
c. heuristic
d. denotation
ANSWER: a
34. Last year, 5-year-old Alonda would say “Him no coming” when explaining to her younger sister that their
older brother would be staying home. Now Alonda will tell her sister “He’s not coming.” Which aspect of
language does this example illustrate development in?
a. linguistic relativity
b. phonemes
c. morphemes
d. syntax
ANSWER: d

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35. What is produced in “babbling”?
a. different cries to signify different kinds of discomfort
b. a wide variety of phonemes and consonant–vowel combinations
c. sound, by placing the tongue near the back of the mouth
d. random combinations of words
ANSWER: b
36. At about what age do babies start babbling?

a. birth
b. 1 month
c. 3 months
d. 6 months
ANSWER: d
37. Which statement best describes babbling?

a. Babies initially babble the sounds used in many different languages.
b. Babies babble only sounds that are part of the parents’ language.
c. Babbling simply involves imitation of the parents’ speech sounds.
d. Babbling emerges only in infants who are not exposed to correct speech.
ANSWER: a
38. Which statement does NOT accurately describe babbling?

a. The sounds babbled by babies from different cultures are different right from the start.
b. Infants’ first words are similar, even in different languages.
c. Infants’ first words are likely to consist of sounds that are easy to produce.
d. Infants’ first words resemble the syllables they babble spontaneously.
ANSWER: a
39. What should you expect to find if you were to compare adult speech with the variety of noises made by
infants under six months of age?
a. Adults can produce more phonemes than are infants.
b. Adults and infants both use the same number of phonemes.
c. Infants produce more phonemes than adults do.
d. Infants produce more morphemes than adults do.
ANSWER: c
40. You are at a day care centre and you hear three 12-month-old babies babbling, each baby from a different
racial/ethnic background (Asian, Hispanic, and Caucasian). Which statement should best describe the babbling
of each of these infants?
a. It will sound very similar, because maturation is the major determinant of language acquisition
during the first year.
b. It will consist mainly of two-word phrases (telegraphic speech).
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c. It will consist mainly of vowel sounds, because consonant sounds don’t usually emerge until 14
months of age.
d. It will sound very different, with each child’s babbles sounding quite similar to the parents’ native
language.
ANSWER: d
41. There is a limited time span during which a child is particularly responsive to experiences which impact
language development. Which term refers to this optimal period of development for language?
a. acquisition period
b. manual mode period
c. critical period
d. sensitive period
ANSWER: c
42. What can be said about babbling if infants who are learning sign language show evidence of manual
babbling (using sign-language-based babbling), but other infants show only vocal babbling?
a. It is related to maturation processes that are unrelated to speech.
b. It is important for development of more than just language and vocal skills.
c. It is related to language acquisition in general, rather than just vocal speech.
d. It is related to motor development in general.
ANSWER: c
43. At about what age are a child’s first words generally spoken?
a. 3 to 5 months
b. 6 to 8 months
c. 10 to 13 months
d. 18 to 21 months
ANSWER: c
44. Which situation would lead you to suspect that the child has a language development problem?
a. A 1-year-old child understands a few words and can say a few words.
b. A 2-year-old child babbles and uses a few words.
c. A 3-year-old child uses grammar correctly around 75 percent to 80 percent of the time.
d. A 5-year-old child can use language much better than a chimpanzee.
ANSWER: b
45. Valerie is 18 months old. What should her productive vocabulary consist of?
a. fewer than 3 words
b. 3 to 50 words
c. 100 to 200 words
d. about 500 words
ANSWER: b
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46. In general, which statement best describes toddlers’ language abilities?

a. They understand more words than they can say.
b. They can say more words than they understand.
c. They understand and say about the same number of words.
d. They say a lot of words, but we have no idea what they actually understand.
ANSWER: a
47. Jenna is 14 months old and uses only “bottle,” “no,” “up,” “bye-bye,” “mama,” and “dada” when she talks.
However, when her father tells Jenna to get her blue bunny from the bedroom and bring it to him, Jenna quickly
runs to get the bunny. What does this example illustrate?
a. Children can overextend their vocabulary, when the situation demands it.
b. Jenna likely has a speech impediment.
c. Infants have difficulty pronouncing phonemes they have never heard.
d. Toddlers’ receptive vocabularies are larger than their productive vocabularies.
ANSWER: d
48. What is fast mapping?

a. pacing of activity associated with gene expression
b. relating words to underlying concepts after only one exposure
c. a type of play a child engages in at an early age
d. development of a mental representation of one’s environment
ANSWER: b
49. Seamus discovered ice cream, dolphins, and trains for the first time yesterday, and has started using those
words correctly right away. What does this example illustrate?
a. overextension
b. metalinguistic awareness
c. semantic slanting
d. fast mapping
ANSWER: d
50. Which of the following is a case of overextension?

a. A word is incorrectly used to describe the opposite of its true meaning.
b. A child uses a single word to signify an entire phrase or sentence.
c. A word is incorrectly used for a wider set of objects or actions than it applies to.
d. A child’s vocabulary has become overly large.
ANSWER: c
51. Kailee has learned the word “kitty,” but she uses this word when she is referring to cats, bunnies, squirrels,
and other small furry animals. What does this example illustrate?
a. babbling
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b. fast mapping
c. telegraphic speech
d. overextension
ANSWER: d
52. Mischel knows how to say “red,” but when his cousin asks him to name the colours of the cars that drive
past their house, he says red for every car, no matter what colour it actually is. What does this example
illustrate?
a. telegraphic speech
b. overextension
c. fast mapping
d. babbling
ANSWER: b
53. Overextensions are more common in children’s production of words than in their comprehension of words.
What does this imply about the use of overextensions?
a. Toddlers cannot yet combine words into sentences.
b. Children’s vocabulary growth occurs at a very rapid pace.
c. Toddlers must rely on a very limited vocabulary to express themselves.
d. Toddlers can’t consistently identify objects to which different words apply.
ANSWER: c
54. When a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to,
which type of error is a child making?
a. underextension
b. telegraphic speech
c. overextension
d. undergeneralization
ANSWER: a
55. Which of the following would constitute underextension, if done by a 3-year-old child?
a. using the word “dress” for all items of clothing
b. only using the word “kitty” to refer to her own cat and not others
c. forgetting the word “banana” because it was just learned today
d. leaving words out of sentences, while retaining the basic meaning
ANSWER: b
56. You are listening to 2-year-old Annie as she says, “No eat. No like.” She is trying to let you know that she is
not going to eat her broccoli because she doesn’t like it. What does Annie’s communication illustrate?
a. telegraphic speech
b. overregularization
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d. underextension
ANSWER: a
57. Two-year-old Owen rushes into the kitchen and tells his mother: “Baby throw. Baby bad.” He wants her to
know that his baby brother is bad because he just threw his toys on the floor. What does Owen’s communication
illustrate?
a. overregularization
b. underextension
d. telegraphic speech
ANSWER: d
58. What is known about the use of telegraphic speech across cultures?
a. Telegraphic speech is more prevalent in Western cultures than in non-Western cultures.
b. The emergence of telegraphic speech is unique to the English language.
c. The emergence of telegraphic speech is a cross-cultural, universal aspect of language development.
d. Although telegraphic speech occurs in many languages, it is not a universal aspect of language
development.
ANSWER: d
59. By what age do children generally master linguistic concepts like past tense or plural?
a. 2 years
b. 3 years
c. 4 years
d. 5 years
ANSWER: b
60. Dale is in Grade 5 and his sister Alina is in Grade 1. What major difference would you expect in comparing
their vocabularies?
a. Dale’s will contain several hundred more words than Alina’s.
b. Dale’s will contain approximately 30,000 more words than Alina’s.
c. Dale’s will be only slightly larger than Alina’s but will contain very few errors.
d. Dale’s vocabulary will be similar in size, but his syntax will be far superior.
ANSWER: b
61. A child says “wented” as the past tense of the verb “to go.” What type of common error is this?
a. metalinguistic transformation
b. semantic slanting
c. motherese
d. overregularization
ANSWER: d

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62. Andi says “sawed” instead of “seen” or “saw.” What type of common error is this?
a. overextension
b. underextension
c. overregularization
d. underregularization
ANSWER: c
63. Four-year-old Nina says, “I runned all the way home.” What does this likely indicate?
a. Nina hears improper verb forms spoken in her home.
b. Nina has forgotten the correct way to form the past tense.
c. Nina is still relying on telegraphic speech to convey meaning.
d. Nina is overregularizing a grammatical rule.
ANSWER: d
64. When a child starts using overregularizations, what do these errors reflect?
a. The child is learning to apply rules to language.
b. The child will soon start using telegraphic speech.
c. The child is fast mapping.
d. The child has slightly delayed development.
ANSWER: a
65. What is metalinguistic awareness?

a. knowledge of which verbs are irregular
b. awareness of the role of positive reinforcement in language acquisition
c. the ability to reflect on the use of language
d. the tendency to recognize one’s own grammatical errors
ANSWER: c
66. Seven-year-old Travis heard a joke in school and asks you, “How could you find a lost dog in the woods?”
When you are stumped, he tells you, “You stand near a tree and listen for the bark.” What is Travis developing,
based on this play on words?
a. the ability to use linguistic heuristics
b. psycholinguistic skills
c. metalinguistic awareness
d. linguistic relativity
ANSWER: c
67. If Annette is learning two languages, what will be the impact of bilingualism on the development of her
vocabulary?
a. The size of her vocabulary will be smaller in each language, but the total of the two will be similar to
the vocabulary of a monolingual child.
b. The size of her vocabulary will be normal in each language.
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c. The size of her vocabulary will be enhanced in each language.
d. The size of her vocabulary, when both languages are added together, will be smaller than that of a
monolingual child.
ANSWER: a
68. Which statement best describes bilingualism?

a. Bilinguals score higher than monolinguals in metalinguistic awareness.
b. Bilinguals score lower than monolinguals in selective attention and cognitive flexibility.
c. Bilinguals are faster than monolinguals in language-processing speed.
d. Bilingualism has a significant, negative effect on overall language development.
ANSWER: a
69. Dr. Peppard is studying cognitive flexibility and selective attention in bilingual and monolingual adults.
What pattern is Dr. Peppard most likely to see in the test scores of bilingual participants, based on the evidence
from previous research studies?
a. They score higher in cognitive flexibility, but lower in selective attention.
b. They score lower in cognitive flexibility, but higher in selective attention.
c. They score lower in both cognitive flexibility and selective attention.
d. They score higher in both cognitive flexibility and selective attention.
ANSWER: d
70. In some early studies, researchers attempted to teach chimpanzees to speak. What conclusions led to these
studies being discontinued?
a. The reinforcement contingencies used in these studies were highly stressful for chimpanzees.
b. Chimpanzees lack the necessary vocal equipment to produce human speech sounds.
c. Chimpanzees lack the cognitive capacity to understand and produce language.
d. Humans are the only species capable of conscious communication.
ANSWER: b
71. What have we learned from studies in which researchers have attempted to teach chimpanzees and bonobos
to use nonverbal language (i.e., sign language or communication boards)?
a. Some have appeared to learn many words and have combined words in appropriate ways.
b. They are capable of learning language to a level equivalent to that seen in 10-year-old children.
c. They are not capable of acquiring nonverbal communication.
d. They can use nonverbal methods to communicate with other primates, but not with humans.
ANSWER: a
72. What type of understanding is illustrated by Kanzi (the famous bonobo) and his ability to distinguish
between “Pour the Coke in the lemonade” and “Pour the lemonade in the Coke”?
a. syntax, but not semantics
b. both syntax and semantics
c. neither syntax nor semantics
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d. semantics, but not syntax
ANSWER: b
73. Pinker and Bloom suggest that language is an evolutionary adaptation. What does language allow us to do,
in their theory?
a. avoid heuristic fallacies
b. acquire information about the world second-hand
c. engage in more efficient introspection
d. use trial-and-error learning more effectively
ANSWER: b
74. Which of the following is NOT one of the evolutionary advantages that language may have provided?
a. reproductive and mating advantages
b. more rapid classical conditioning
c. more efficient hunting and gathering
d. avoidance of predators and other dangers
ANSWER: b
75. According to Pinker and Bloom, how many generations would it have taken for Neanderthals to become
extinct if the acquisition of language produced a 1 percent difference in mortality rates among overlapping
Neanderthal and human populations?
a. 10 generations
b. 30 generations
c. 4,000 generations
d. 30,000 generations
ANSWER: b
76. According to Pinker and Bloom, if the acquisition of language was a trait variation that produced just 1
percent more offspring per generation, how long would it take to see an increase in prevalence from 0.1 percent
to 99.9 percent?
a. 3 generations
b. 30 generations
c. 4,000 generations
d. 40,000 generations
ANSWER: c
77. Why do children learn a language, according to Skinner?

a. It is a natural consequence of cognitive maturation, as the quality of thought improves with age.
b. They imitate, and then parents provide reinforcement and shaping.
c. It is a natural consequence of a complex and mature brain.
d. They possess an innate language acquisition device.
ANSWER: b
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78. Why does a child’s pronunciation improve over time, according to learning theory?
a. The brain matures with age.
b. The quality of their problem-solving ability improves.
c. Transformational rules are mastered.
d. Parents insist on better pronunciation before providing reinforcement.
ANSWER: d
79. Dr. Prasad believes that experience with reinforcement determines which specific aspects of language an
individual will eventually master. Who would be most likely to agree with Dr. Prasad?
a. Benjamin Whorf
b.
b. F. Skinner
c. Noam Chomsky
d. Herbert Simon
ANSWER: b
80. What is a criticism of the behaviourist model of language acquisition?

a. Children don’t seem to learn transformational rules as Skinner said they should.
b. It is unreasonable to expect children to learn an infinite number of sentences by imitation.
c. Children don’t respond to positive reinforcement until they are in preschool, after language is already
established.
d. Its concepts are extremely vague.
ANSWER: b
81. Overregularizations occur as children master language skills. Which theory of language development does
this provide evidence against?
a. behavioural
b. linguistic relativity
c. interactionist
d. nativist
ANSWER: a
82. Mandy seldom corrects her 4-year-old’s grammatical errors, such as “Her drinked my milk.” However, she
is careful to correct factual errors, such as “Tiger ate his milk.” If Mandy’s child develops normal language
skills, which theory is weakened by this evidence?
a. the nativist view of language development
b. the behavioural view of language development
c. all major theories of language development
d. the transformational theory of language development
ANSWER: b
83. Which statement is consistent with Noam Chomsky’s theories of language?

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a. Reinforcement is the main factor in language learning.
b. Biological factors play a relatively minor role in language development.
c. There is an inborn biological propensity that guides language learning.
d. Language is almost wholly a matter of social learning.
ANSWER: c
84. Kamini is playing with her dolls and she points to one of her dolls and says to you, “Her wented out to a
party yesterday night.” This is a sentence that she has never heard another person say. Such utterances provide
evidence against which view of language?
a. interactionist
b. cognitive
c. nativist
d. behaviourist
ANSWER: d
85. Which type of theory best accounts for the apparent rapidity and ease of language acquisition in early
childhood?
a. behaviourist
b. cognitive
c. nativist
d. social communication
ANSWER: c
86. Dr. Sciorro believes that because the majority of children acquire language without any effort, there must be
a biological mechanism that facilitates language learning. Which theorist most closely mirror Dr. Sciorro’s
views of language development?
a. Benjamin Whorf
b.
b. F. Skinner
c. Noam Chomsky
d. Herbert Simon
ANSWER: c
87. Which theory of language is associated with the hypothesized “language acquisition device”?
a. generativity
b. learning
c. stage
d. nativist
ANSWER: d
88. What is NOT an item of evidence Chomsky would use to support the idea of an inborn language learning
mechanism?
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a. Children learn language very quickly and effortlessly.
b. The errors in child speech are common and indicate lawfulness.
c. The general rate of language learning is similar for kids from diverse backgrounds.
d. Language learning in young children is different across cultures.
ANSWER: d
89. Some researchers have reported that in the first few months, babies who are born deaf still coo and babble,
just like babies who can hear. Which theory is most supported by this evidence?
b. behavioural
c. nativist
d. cognitive
ANSWER: c
90. What is associated with cognitive theories of language acquisition?

a. Children possess a built-in language acquisition device.
b. Language acquisition is tied to children’s progress in thinking.
c. Thought starts to occur after the child acquires language.
d. Children learn language through imitation, reinforcement, and shaping.
ANSWER: b
91. Anika has just started to understand the idea that events can happen in the future. Now, when she talks about
things she is going to do tomorrow or next week, she uses the future tense, rather than the present tense. Which
theory would be supported by this development in Anika’s language skills?
b. nativist
c. cognitive
d. behavioural
ANSWER: c
92. Which type of theorist emphasizes the functional value of interactions among people?
a. social communication theorist
b. behaviourist
c. nativist theorist
d. cognitive theorist
ANSWER: a
93. In Masuda and Nisbett’s study on cognitive styles, what was the difference between Japanese and American
participants in their reports of what they had seen after viewing fish and underwater objects?
a. Japanese participants tended to identify focal objects such as the fish whereas the Americans tended
to identify background stimuli.
b. Americans tended to identify focal objects such as the fish whereas Japanese tended to identify
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background stimuli.
c. Both groups identified equal numbers of focal and background stimuli.
d. The results were inconclusive.
ANSWER: b
94. Based on Masuda and Nisbett’s study on cognitive style, what conclusions can be made regarding cultural
differences in cognitive style?
a. Cultural differences in cognitive style are mild.
b. Cultural differences in cognitive style are substantial.
c. There are no cross-cultural differences observed in cognitive style.
d. The results were inconclusive.
ANSWER: b
95. Which term refers to the efforts made by people when they are actively trying to figure out what steps must
be taken in order to achieve a goal which is otherwise not easily attained?
a. solution seeking
b. problem solving
c. heuristics
d. project management
ANSWER: b
96. Andrew has applied to law school and been accepted to both Dalhousie and Simon Fraser Universities. Now
he is evaluating his options and weighting these two alternatives. He must make a choice by the end of the
month. Which term refers to the process Andrew is currently engaged in as he considers his options for law
school?
a. choice management
b. decision making
c. reality monitoring
d. selective activation
ANSWER: b
97. According to the phenomenon of loss aversion, most people expect that the negative impact of losing $1000
will be greater than the positive impact of winning $1000. What would this phenomenon have an impact on?
a. the informal development of schemas
b. the types of decisions people make
c. short-term memory
d. collective intelligence
ANSWER: b
98. Dr. McGrath believes that both an innate predisposition and a supportive environment contribute to language
development. Which language theory is Dr. McGrath’s views are most consistent with?
a. behavioural

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b. interactionist
c. nativist
d. Whorfian
ANSWER: b
99. What is predicted by the linguistic relativity hypothesis?

a. People in all cultures think alike, despite their language differences.
b. Language development consistently lags behind cognitive development.
c. Language and thought develop independently.
d. People will have difficulty thinking about things they cannot describe in words.
ANSWER: d
100. When 3-year-old Garret is colouring a picture of a rainbow, he carefully selects different colours for each
stripe. When Garret is asked to name the colours he uses, he confidently answers “blue” each time. Garret can
distinguish between the colours, even though he can’t accurately name them yet. What does this suggest?
a. Social communication theory does not accurately reflect the link between language and behaviour.
b. Social communication theory provides an accurate description of the link between language and
behaviour.
c. The linguistic relativity hypothesis does not accurately reflect the link between thought and language.
d. The linguistic relativity hypothesis provides an accurate description of the link between thought and
language.
ANSWER: c
101. Imagine that anthropologists found a culture that had over 80 different words for rice. What would that
discovery suggest if researchers also found that the people in this culture thought about rice in different and
more elaborate ways than people who have only one word for rice?
a. It would provide evidence that social communication theory is incorrect.
b. It would support social communication theory.
c. It would provide evidence that the linguistic relativity hypothesis is incorrect.
d. It would support the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
ANSWER: d
102. Greeno’s basic types of problems were described in your text. Which one requires the problem solver to
discover the relations among the parts of the problem?
a. inducing structure
b. transformation
c. recategorization
d. arrangement
ANSWER: a
103. Greeno’s basic categories of problems were described in your text. Which category are series-completion
problems examples of?

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a. transformation
b. inducing structure
c. arrangement
d. recategorization
ANSWER: b
104. Here is an example of a question: “Glove is to hand as sock is to _____.” What type of question is this?
a. problem of arrangement
b. ill-defined problem
c. problem of transformation
d. problem of inducing structure
ANSWER: d
105. Here is an example of a question: “Apple is to fruit as hamburger is to _____.” What type of question is
this?
a. arrangement problem
b. series-completion problem
c. analogy problem
d. representativeness heuristic
ANSWER: c
106. What type of problem are you solving if you reorganize the letters “OSHOT” to form an English word?
a. lexical analysis
b. inducing structure
c. arrangement
d. transformation
ANSWER: c
107. Which term refers to the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based
primarily on trial and error?
a. insight
b. rearrangement
c. functional fixedness
d. transformation
ANSWER: a
108. Marc loves to solve anagrams and spends a great deal of time working through books of anagrams. Which
problem-solving strategy does it appear that Marc enjoys?
a. analogical reasoning
b. arrangement
c. transformation

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d. inducing structure
ANSWER: b
109. Marie received a puzzle as a present for her birthday. The puzzle has three pegs, and to solve the puzzle a
person is required to move nine disks from the centre peg to one of the outside pegs. However, only one disk
can be moved at a time, and a larger disk can never be placed on top of a smaller disk. What type of problem is
this?
b. problem of transformation
c. problem of inducing structure
d. ill-defined problem
ANSWER: b
110. Which statement best describes the act of solving problems containing numerical information?
a. Insight will typically produce the fastest, most accurate solution to the problem.
b. It is a good idea to start by trying to figure out how to use the numerical information.
c. It is safe to assume that all of the information will be needed to solve the problem.
d. You should start by figuring out which information is relevant to the problem.
ANSWER: d
111. What is functional fixedness?

a. the inability to discover the relations among the parts of a problem
b. the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and
error
c. the inability to carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal
d. the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
ANSWER: d
112. What does functional fixedness refer to?

a. not seeing a new function for a familiar object
b. arriving at a particularly insightful solution to a problem
c. continued use of problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past
d. focusing on information that is irrelevant to the solution of the problem
ANSWER: a
113. You have a pair of pliers and a bag of nuts in the shell. You are lamenting the fact that you can’t shell the
nuts because you do not have a nutcracker. Which problem is demonstrated by your inability to perceive the
pliers as a makeshift nutcracker?
a. mental set
b. insight insufficiency
c. functional fixedness
d. heuristic reasoning
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ANSWER: c
114. Claudia wants to send a fragile vase to her parents for their anniversary, but she can’t find any appropriate
packing material in her house. She decides to pop some popcorn and use that to pack around the vase. What has
Claudia done in this case?
a. overcome functional fixedness in solving her problem
b. effectively utilized the availability heuristic in solving her problem
c. utilized an elimination-by-aspects strategy to solve her problem
d. demonstrated functional fixedness in solving her problem
ANSWER: a
115. When Quentin sprained his ankle in a backyard softball game, his girlfriend grabbed a bag of frozen corn
from the freezer to wrap around his ankle until they got him to the local clinic. What did Quentin’s girlfriend do
in this case?
a. She effectively utilized the availability heuristic.
b. She was able to overcome functional fixedness.
c. She demonstrated a mental set in treating Quentin’s sprained ankle.
d. She successfully utilized an elimination-by-aspects strategy.
ANSWER: b
116. Which statement best describes age and functional fixedness?

a. All age groups are likely to show evidence of functional fixedness, especially when solving problems
using unfamiliar objects.
b. Compared to all other age groups, adolescents are most likely to show evidence of functional
fixedness.
c. Compared to young children, older children and adults are less likely to show evidence of functional
fixedness.
d. Compared to older children and adults, young children are less likely to show evidence of functional
fixedness.
ANSWER: d
117. Kareem is working on a practical problem with his 16-year-old son, Josh, and his 8-year-old daughter, Lisa.
They don’t have the right tools for the job, and they need to come up with a creative solution that uses the items
they have available. Based on research findings into the prevalence of functional fixedness, what should you
predict?
a. Lisa is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, young children are less vulnerable
to functional fixedness.
b. Either Kareem or Josh is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, males are less
vulnerable to functional fixedness.
c. Josh is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, older children and adolescents are
less vulnerable to functional fixedness.
d. Kareem is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, adults are less vulnerable to
functional fixedness.
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ANSWER: a
118. What are you demonstrating if you tend to persist in using the same problem-solving strategy time after
time?
a. delusion
b. mental set
c. illusion
d. generic insight
ANSWER: b
119. Eva just upgraded her software package. However, even though the updated version contains a number of
more efficient methods for working with files, Eva continues to work with files the way she did before the
upgrade. What is Eva showing evidence of in this case?
a. belief perseverance
b. priming
c. the availability heuristic
d. mental set
ANSWER: d
120. Riley’s algebra teacher is amazed at the creativity Riley shows in solving homework problems. He seldom
uses the same method on two consecutive problems, even when the problems are very similar in content and
structure. Although Riley makes lots of mistakes in algebra, what is he unlikely to experience?
a. mental set in his problem solving
b. functional fixedness in his problem solving
c. overregularization in his problem solving
d. noncompensatory problem solving
ANSWER: a
121. You are the president of a large company and you are interested in making some changes to the way that
the company runs. You would like to see some creativity in administrative processes, rather than simply
continuing the way things have always been done. What should you do?
a. Hire new managers from outside the company, because the existing managers are vulnerable to the
effects of mental set.
b. Encourage retired managers to come back temporarily, because experienced managers would be less
vulnerable to the effects of mental set.
c. Promote young employees to positions of power, because young adults are more likely to take
advantage of functional fixedness.
d. Hire more women for management positions, because women are less vulnerable to functional
fixedness.
ANSWER: a
122. In attempting to solve the “nine dot problem” few individuals attempt to draw a line outside the imaginary
boundary surrounding the nine dots. This is not a rule associated with the problem but is imposed by the
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problem solver. What is this an example of?
a. trial-and-error learning
b. functional fixedness
c. mental set
d. unnecessary constraints
ANSWER: d
123. Alex is dealing with a new problem that he has never encountered. He begins to consider all the various
methods that he has used to solve problems in the past. What is Alex thinking about, according to Newell and
Simon?
a. the mental set
b. the problem space
c. heuristics
d. algorithm
ANSWER: b
124. When Alaina is working on her bicycle, she brings her entire tool kit out on the driveway and starts pulling
wrenches from the tool kit at random, trying them until she finds one that fits. What type of approach is Alaina
using?
a. alternate outcomes analysis
b. working backward
c. forming subgoals
d. trial and error
ANSWER: d
125. You attempt possible solutions to a problem, then discard the ones that don’t work until you find one that
does. What is this method of problem solving called?
a. working backward
b. algorithmic
c. trial and error
d. heuristic
ANSWER: c
126. What is an algorithm?

a. a guiding principle used in problem solving
b. a methodical procedure for trying all possible solutions to a problem
c. it is equivalent to a heuristic
d. the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by a problem solver
ANSWER: b
127. Lance is trying to solve a complex anagram puzzle. He systematically tries every potential solution by
testing each possible combination of the letters provided. What is Lance doing in this case?
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a. working backward
b. using means-ends analysis
c. using a heuristic
d. using an algorithm
ANSWER: d
128. Which statement is least accurate?

a. Algorithms may be impractical when the problem space is large.
b. If an algorithm is available for a problem, it guarantees that a solution can eventually be found.
c. Algorithms exist for all clearly defined problems.
d. Algorithms can be used to apply the trial-and-error approach systematically.
ANSWER: c
129. In which situation would an algorithm be most useful?

a. helping a group decide which restaurant to go to
b. generating a shopping list
c. opening a lock when you know the combination is three numbers
d. providing a diagnosis for someone in an emergency room
ANSWER: c
130. Vivian has forgotten the last digit of her locker combination. She carefully tries every number in order until
she finds the one that works. What is Vivian using in this case?
a. functional fixedness
b. an algorithm
c. framing
d. a heuristic
ANSWER: b
131. Salvador hates to work through the problems on his calculus assignments step by step, and he often tries
shortcuts that might save him some time. What does Salvador prefer to use?
a. heuristics
b. functional fixedness
c. analogies
d. algorithms
ANSWER: a
132. Esmeralda wants to use her roommate’s computer to work on her term paper, but the roommate has
password-protected the computer. Rather than starting at “a” and systematically testing every possible word in
the English language, Esmeralda tries using her roommate’s birthdate and pets’ names. What is Esmeralda
using in this case?
a. representativeness
b. reframing
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c. an algorithm
d. a heuristic
ANSWER: d
133. When is working backward a good strategy to follow?

a. when you have many options at the beginning of a problem, but few at the end
b. when the problem does not have a well-specified goal
c. when a problem has obvious subgoals
d. when you can recognize the similarity between two problems
ANSWER: a
134. In which case will working backward to solve a problem be an effective strategy?
a. when a problem has a well-defined endpoint
b. when it is necessary to change the representation of a problem
c. when a problem has multiphasic branch points
d. when a problem is unsolvable by heuristics
ANSWER: a
135. Mayra wants to generate a set of anagrams for a contest in the campus paper. To generate the anagrams,
she starts with the words that the contestants need to come up with to win the contest, and then scrambles the
letters. In this case, Mayra’s method of solving the problem is consistent with which problem-solving heuristic?
a. means-end analysis
b. searching for analogies
c. trial and error
d. working backward
ANSWER: d
136. Which heuristic are you applying if you solve a current problem using the solution to a previous, similar
problem?
a. formulating subgoals
b. working backward from the goal
c. searching for analogies
d. the availability heuristic
ANSWER: c
137. You’ve observed the similarities between a new problem to be solved and one you’ve successfully solved
in the past. What is this called?
a. the alternative outcomes effect
b. an algorithm
c. shaping
d. using analogies
ANSWER: d
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138. When Graham uses the printer in the library, the paper keeps jamming in the machine. He takes the paper
out of the paper tray, fans it, and then flips it over, so the other side of the paper feeds first. This is the way he
solves similar problems on the photocopy machine at the office where he works. Which problem-solving
heuristic is consistent with Graham’s method of solving the problem?
a. working backward
b. searching for analogies
c. means-end analysis
d. trial and error
ANSWER: b
139. Why do diagrams sometimes facilitate problem solving?

a. They aid in the search for analogies.
b. They change the representation of the problem.
c. They make it easier to execute algorithms.
d. They relax constraints on problem solutions.
ANSWER: b
140. Charlene was packing for a trip and she started to just pile all of her favourite clothes into her suitcase. She
realized that she didn’t have room for everything that she would like to take so she made a list of how many
items she would need for the five days that she would be away and selected just the number of items that she
would need. Which strategy did Charlene use?
a. an algorithm
b. working backward
c. changing the representation of the problem
d. searching for an analogy
ANSWER: c
141. Scott has been trying to write some computer code, but it isn’t working. He decided to go to bed and try
again in the morning, and when he started again he immediately detected and fixed the problem. What does this
example illustrate?
a. incubation effect
b. field dependence
d. mental set
ANSWER: a
142. The nativist theory suggests that humans are biologically equipped for language. Which term refers to the
innate mechanism which nativists propose people possess which facilitates the learning of language?
a. language acquisition device
b. field dependent learning
c. the rules of language

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d. the amygdala
ANSWER: a
143. Which statement best describes effective decision making?

a. Effective decision making always requires careful analysis of the alternatives
b. Effective decision making always involves thoughtful deliberation
c. Effective decision making may be fast and use frugal heuristics
d. Intuition is not a reliable or effective strategy for making effective decisions.
ANSWER: c
144. Judy has been asked to solve the Tower of Hanoi problem whereby she has a goal of moving three rings
from on post to another post. There are rules to this problem which further complicate the task. Judy is
concerned but has decided to break the problem down into intermediate steps. Which approach to problem
solving is Judy using?
a. forming subgoals
b. using algorithms
d. using heuristics
ANSWER: a
145. Recent research using brain-imaging technology shows that the brain reacts differently to syllables that are
either good or bad word candidates. What can we conclude from this?
a. The brain is hardwired to recognize sound patterns that make up human languages.
b. There is no evidence of the effect of the instruction through teaching of language.
c. There is no evidence for the effect of reinforcement in language development.
d. Nativism is the only theoretical approach to language development which has demonstrated research
support.
ANSWER: a
146. According to Herbert Simon, people do not always live up to ideal goals of rationality in making decisions.
Rather, they tend to use simple strategies which only focus on a few facets of the available options. What is this
behavioural economic theory called?
a. theory of bounded rationality
b. framing
c. theory of reference
d. functional fixedness
ANSWER: a
147. What is the correct order of the milestones in language development?

a. cooing, babbling, first words, two-word sentence
b. babbling, cooing, first words, two-word sentence
c. babbling, first words, overregularizations, two-word sentence

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d. cooing, first words, babbling, one-word sentence, syntax
ANSWER: a
148. Which term refers to the approach to problem solving which is best used when whether you solve the
problem hinges on how you envision it?
a. changing the representation of the problem
b. taking a break
c. incubation
d. changing the analogy of the problem
ANSWER: a
149. The objective value of an outcome to a particular problem is usually clear and concise. Subjective utility,
on the other hand, tends to carry with it a great deal of variability. What exactly is meant by subjective utility in
the decision-making process?
a. what the outcome is personally worth to the individual
b. what the outcome is worth in social bargaining units
c. the value of the outcome where there is risk involved
d. subjective probability
ANSWER: a
150. There are two systems of thought which evolutionary theorists have argued human reasoning largely
depends on. Which one is best used to make fast decisions?
a. fast and frugal heuristics
b. traditional decision research
c. effortful cognition
d. unbounded decision making
ANSWER: a
151. What do people focus on if they are using an analytic cognitive style?
a. following step-by-step procedures, rather than using mental shortcuts
b. objects and their properties, rather than overall context
c. external frames of reference, and that the environment is taken as a given
d. context and relationships among the elements in a field
ANSWER: b
152. Michiko lives in Japan, and Krystal, Michiko’s pen pal, lives in Canada. Based on the research by Nisbett
and his colleagues into cultural differences in cognitive styles, which styles should you predict that each person
will tend to use?
a. Michiko will be heuristic, and Krystal will be algorithmic.
b. Michiko will be holistic, and Krystal will be analytic.
c. Michiko will be field independent, and Krystal will be field dependent.
d. Michiko will be heuristic, and Krystal will be holistic.
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ANSWER: b
153. Wanda went to the supermarket. She began to feel overwhelmed as she noted 61 varieties of salad dressing. What is
most likely the problem Wanda is having, according to Barry Schwartz?
a. She is overwhelmed by the number of choices and stressed as she attempts to make a decision.
b. She is having a panic attack.
c. She is unsatisfied and complaining that there are not enough options.
d. Wanda is delusional.
ANSWER: a
154. What is another term for making choices under conditions of uncertainty?
a. risky decision making
b. expected value process
c. deliberation without attention
d. intuitive decision making
ANSWER: a
155. What kind of conclusion can we draw from the research on semantic slanting and name calling?
a. There is evidence that our thoughts may be shaped by language.
b. The linguistic-relativity hypothesis has been established through empirical findings.
c. The power of the situation must be considered in the decision-making process.
d. The critical thinker does not appreciate that using your words carefully is important.
ANSWER: a
156. Janet Werker’s pioneering research on infants has led to which important question regarding language
development?
a. Is there such a thing as a critical period?
b. What are the processes which open and close critical periods?
c. Do babies babble?
d. Do babies coo?
ANSWER: a
157. Why would an algorithm be highly inefficient in resolving the matchstick problem?
a. Algorithms are most effective when there are relatively few possible solutions to be tried out.
b. Algorithms are most effective when there are relatively many possible solutions to be tried out.
c. Algorithms are ineffective in solving puzzles.
d. Algorithms are ineffective when there are relatively few possible solutions to be tried out.
ANSWER: a
158. Who has been the most well-known supporter of the linguistic relativity hypothesis?
a. Benjamin Whorf
b. Jiaying Zhao
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c. B F Skinner
d. Herbert Simon
ANSWER: a
159. According to Kahneman, which system of thought are we invoking when we scan the environment at a
concert looking for a person wearing a red hoodie, when we complete our tax returns, or when we try to
maintain a faster walking speed than is normal for us?
a. slow thinking system
b. fast thinking system
c. system 1 thinking
d. deliberation system of thought
ANSWER: a
160. When people use language to refer to ethnic or racial groups, the wording is often slanted in either a
positive or negative direction. What does this reveal?
a. the attitude of the speaker
b. the behaviour of the speaker
c. the subsequent thoughts of the listener
d. the subsequent actions of the listener
ANSWER: a
161. Stating that “all good Canadians will agree . . .” is an example of which of the following?
a. anticipatory name calling
b. the expectancy model
c. retrograde name calling
d. name calling with the intention of invoking negative group membership
ANSWER: a
162. In Canada, the Inuit have their own language and culture. For example, they have numerous words for
snow which are absent in English language. According to Whorf, what is a result of these differences in
language?
a. The Inuit experience a broader perception of snow.
b. Those who speak English only, experience a broader perception of snow.
c. Bilingual non-Inuits experience a broader perception of snow than those who speak only English or French.
d. The perception of snow in Canada are independent of language.
ANSWER: a
163. In a taste test, two groups were given exactly the same chocolate and asked to rate it for flavour, texture,
and appearance. One group was told that the chocolate was expensive, handmade, and imported from Europe.
The other group was told that the chocolate was relatively cheap and from a large factory in a nearby city.
Which chocolate will get the most favourable ratings?
a. the “expensive” chocolate, because perception of quality is distorted by expectation

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b. the “cheap” chocolate, because it would be better than expected
c. the “expensive” chocolate, because of demand characteristics in the situation
d. the “cheap” chocolate, because we tend to prefer things that are a good value
ANSWER: a
164. You flip a fair coin ten times. Each time it comes up heads, you get 10 cents. Each time it comes up tails,
you lose 5 cents. What is your expected value for each flip of the coin?
a. –5 cents
b. +5 cents
c. –10 cents
d. +10 cents
ANSWER: b
165. Jacob is thinking of buying a $1 lottery ticket. In Lottery A, his odds of winning are 1 out of 1,000, and he
may win $500. In Lottery B, his odds of winning are 1 out of 5,000, but he may win $5,000. What will Jacob
choose to do based on expected value theory?
a. Buy a ticket from Lottery A because it has a higher expected value.
b. Not buy either ticket because both lotteries have very low odds of winning.
c. Buy a ticket from Lottery B because it has a higher expected value.
d. Buy either ticket because both lotteries have the same expected value.
ANSWER: c
166. Wilson is watching two different roulette-type games at a local charity bazaar. Each game costs $1 to play.
In one game, there are ten different numbers, and if the number he selects comes up, he will win $12. In the
other game, there are 100 different numbers, but if the number he selects comes up, he will win $50. What
should Wilson do based on expected value theory?
a. Play the first game because it has a higher expected value.
b. Play either one of the games because they both have the same expected value.
c. Play the second game because it has a higher expected value.
d. Not play either game because they both have such low odds of winning.
ANSWER: a
167. What is subjective utility?

a. an individual’s willingness to take risks
b. a personal estimate of what the probability of an outcome is
c. the expected value of an outcome
d. what an outcome is personally worth to an individual
ANSWER: d
168. What is subjective probability?

a. a personal estimate of what the likelihood of an outcome is
b. what an outcome is personally worth to an individual
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c. the expected value of an outcome
d. an individual’s willingness to take risks
ANSWER: a
169. Assume that odds of a new computer requiring any type of service in the first two years are less than 1 in
10.000, and the average cost of any computer service call is only $50. However, Karen pays $200 for a two-
year service contract on her new computer. She explains that her peace of mind is well worth the cost of the
contract. What is Karen using to make her decision to purchase the service agreement in this case?
a. noncompensatory factors
b. subjective probability
c. expected value
d. subjective utility
ANSWER: d
170. What is the term for basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which instances come to
mind?
a. representativeness heuristic
b. law of small numbers
c. conjunction fallacy
d. availability heuristic
ANSWER: d
171. You can’t think of a single instance when Cathy helped you out, and so you decide that Cathy must be an
ungenerous person. What are you using to make this judgment?
b. expected value
c. availability heuristic
d. subjective utility
ANSWER: c
172. What are people using when they overestimate the frequency of violent crimes because such crimes are
repeatedly shown in the media?
a. holistic decision model
b. representativeness heuristic
c. elimination by aspects strategy
ANSWER: d
173. Juliana used to enjoy eating chicken, but since she has seen all the headlines about people becoming ill
from eating chicken, she has decided she will never eat chicken again. What influenced Juliana’s decision to
stop eating chicken?
a. overconfidence effect

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b. representativeness heuristic
c. conjunction fallacy
ANSWER: d
174. Zackary’s friend asks how well Zackary gets along with his younger brother. Zackary thinks about how
irritating his younger brother was yesterday, and the big fight they had as a result, and tells his friend that he
doesn’t get along with his brother at all. What is Zackary’s response consistent with in this instance?
a. conjunction fallacy
b. availability heuristic
c. hindsight bias
ANSWER: b
175. What cognitive tendency is described by the representativeness heuristic?

a. ignoring common stereotypes when estimating probabilities
b. estimating the probability of an event based on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event
c. ignoring subjective probabilities when making decisions
d. estimating the probability of an event by judging the ease with which relevant instances come to
mind
ANSWER: b
176. After seeing your new neighbour walking very stiffly and primly by your house wearing horn-rimmed
glasses on a chain, a cardigan sweater, and her hair in a bun, you decide she must be a librarian. What are you
using to make this judgment?
a. subjective probability
b. subjective utility
ANSWER: d
177. Elisa is entering survey data from adult males in a research study. One respondent has listed his height as 6
feet 5 inches, but the occupation is hard to decipher. Elisa thinks it might be basketball player or bank president.
She decides to enter basketball player as the occupation, because he is so tall. What did Elisa do in this case?
a. demonstrated the conjunction fallacy in making her decision
b. demonstrated overextension in making her decision
c. probably relied on the representativeness heuristic to make her decision
d. probably relied on the availability heuristic to make her decision
ANSWER: c
178. Byron has been watching his new neighbour for a week. She drives a sporty car, carries a phone, and wears
nothing but blue business suits. Byron decides his new neighbour must be a lawyer. What did Byron use to form
an opinion about his new neighbour’s occupation?
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a. hindsight bias
b. base-rate fallacy
c. representativeness heuristic
ANSWER: c
179. Claude and Marie are excited because they have just bought a restaurant from the previous owners. The
two partners know that the last seven restaurants that have been operated at that location have gone bankrupt
within a year of their openings, but Claude and Marie are certain their restaurant will be successful because they
plan on working hard to be a success. What are the two new business partners doing in this case?
a. supporting the gambler’s fallacy
b. demonstrating the confirmation bias
c. ignoring base rates
d. showing belief perseverance
ANSWER: c
180. Autumn has been figure-skating since she was 5 years old. She has never placed higher than third in any of
the competitions she has been in, but she is still convinced that she will be able to become a professional figure
skater in a few years. Her coach and her parents have tried to tell her that not many people make it as
professional skaters, but Autumn is convinced that she can beat the odds. What is Autumn doing in this case?
a. showing the confirmation bias
b. displaying evidence of mental set
c. showing belief perseverance
d. ignoring base rates
ANSWER: d
181. What cognitive tendency is described by the conjunction fallacy?

a. drawing general conclusions based on a few isolated cases
b. ignoring information about base rates when estimating the probabilities of certain combinations of
outcomes
c. believing that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either
event happening alone
d. overestimating the odds of a chance event if that event hasn’t occurred recently
ANSWER: c
182. You and your friend just met a woman at the bookstore, and she recommended a very good book to you.
You guess, based on her appearance and demeanour, that she is a teacher. Your friend suggests that she is a
teacher and also a writer. What should you think about your friend’s suggestion?
a. Your friend has used an availability heuristic to decide that the woman must be a writer as well as a
teacher.
b. It’s a very good idea, because being a teacher increases the likelihood that she is also a writer.
c. Your friend has used the conjunction fallacy, assuming that the odds of two events occurring together
are more likely than the odds of either event happening alone.
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d. Your friend has just used the representativeness heuristic to arrive at a conclusion.
ANSWER: c
183. Which research project would be most likely to be conducted by someone in the field of behavioural
economics?
a. a study of emotional influences on investment in the stock market
b. a comparison of the personalities of people in different socio-economic groups
c. a comprehensive list of the cost of education in 40 different countries
d. an efficiency study of a corporation
ANSWER: a
184. Why do we make so many errors in decision making, according to the theory of bounded rationality?
a. Our brains have evolved to solve problems that are different from many of the problems we currently
face in our modern environment.
b. We are incapable of actually considering all the factors necessary to make an optimal decision.
c. We have poor mathematical abilities, and so we miscalculate risks and benefits.
d. We are far too affected by our emotions to make difficult decisions.
ANSWER: b
185. You’re deciding whether you should take a new medication. One review tells you that the medication has a
5 percent risk of a serious side effect. Another review tells you that 95 percent of patients do not experience that
side effect. What differs between these two reviews?
a. bounded rationality
b. the algorithm
c. representativeness
d. framing
ANSWER: d
186. Humans often appear irrational when you look at results of decision-making research. What explanation for
this tendency is given by evolutionary theorists?
a. Problems in the laboratory are different from the problems we evolved to solve.
b. Lab studies use heuristics and algorithms rather than deductive reasoning.
c. Most research compares humans to other animals, and other animals are more instinctive in their
decision-making processes.
d. Most decision-making research involves numerical problems, something that our ancestors did not
face.
ANSWER: a
187. Why do we use “fast and frugal heuristics,” according to Gigerenzer?

a. We typically make decisions under divided attention, so we don’t focus on the actual problem.
b. Most of us do not have the cognitive power to process all the necessary information to make a
decision.

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c. We learn as children to use our best guess, rather than reason through the process.
d. We often don’t have the time required to calculate every possible outcome or factor.
ANSWER: d
188. What is the benefit of using “fast and frugal heuristics”?

a. We tend to have greater confidence in decisions made that way.
b. We make more accurate decisions than when we use careful reasoning.
c. There are few benefits to the use of those heuristics, as decision making tends to be very flawed when
done rapidly.
d. We can make decisions very quickly.
ANSWER: d
189. Penny saw a man walking toward her with a baseball bat, and she immediately decided that she was in
danger. She then thought carefully about her situation and realized that she was at a park with a baseball
diamond, so the man was probably just going there to practise. Which decision-making model accounts for both
attributions?
a. dual-process theory
b. bounded rationality
c. field independence
d. trial-and-error
ANSWER: a
190. Which of your text’s unifying themes is illustrated by interactionist theories of language development?
a. People’s experience of the world is highly subjective.
b. Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context.
c. Heredity and environment jointly influence behaviour.
d. Psychology is empirical.
ANSWER: c
191. During the 1950s and 1960s, creative new ways of measuring mental processes paved the way for the
cognitive revolution. Which of your text’s unifying themes does the development of new research methods
helps to illustrate?
b. Psychology is theoretically diverse.
c. Behaviour is determined by multiple causes.
d. Psychology is empirical.
ANSWER: d
192. Which of your text’s unifying themes is partly illustrated by the fact that variations in cognitive style
sometimes reflect the ecological demands of one’s environment?
a. Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context.
b. People’s experience of the world is highly subjective.

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c. Psychology is theoretically diverse.
d. Behaviour is shaped by our cultural heritage.
ANSWER: d
193. Which of your text’s unifying themes is illustrated by the fact that choices which are objectively identical
can seem very different when reframed in different terms?
b. Behaviour is shaped by our cultural heritage.
c. Psychology is theoretically diverse.
d. Heredity and environment jointly influence behaviour.
ANSWER: a
194. Miryam has been following the provincial lottery for over a year, and she has a record of the number of
times every number has been selected. She is going to start purchasing tickets for each draw with the same six-
number combination on each ticket. She is going to choose the six numbers that have occurred the least
frequently in the last year because she is sure they will be picked eventually. What has influenced Miryam’s
choice of numbers in this case?
a. availability heuristic
b. conjunction fallacy
c. base rate fallacy
d. gambler’s fallacy
ANSWER: d
195. Malcolm has been watching a roulette-type game at a local charity bazaar. The game has only 10 numbers
on the wheel, and every number except 8 has come up as a winner during the last 15 minutes. Malcolm decides
to bet $10 on number 8, because it has to come up eventually. What has influenced Malcolm’s choice in this
case?
a. gambler’s fallacy
c. base rate fallacy
d. conjunction fallacy
ANSWER: a
196. Mr. and Mrs. Jones have five daughters. Hoping for a son, they decide to have a sixth child, reasoning that
a boy is long overdue. Is their reasoning correct, and why?
a. Yes. After having so many daughters, a boy is almost a sure thing.
b. No. The simple probability of a son is unaffected by the sex of previous children.
c. No. It is more likely that Mr. and Mrs. Jones will continue to produce girls.
d. Yes. The greater the number of girls a couple has had, the greater the likelihood that the next will be
a boy.
ANSWER: b
197. You’ve been rolling a die for the last five minutes, and you haven’t rolled a 6 even once. What are you
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using if you predict that the results of the next roll are independent of all other rolls?
b. laws of probability
c. representativeness heuristic
d. gambler’s fallacy
ANSWER: b
198. What is the likelihood of misleading results in a small sample, compared to the likelihood of misleading
results in a large sample?
a. less in a small sample
b. likelihood is unaffected by sample size
c. greater in a small sample
d. same in both types of sample
ANSWER: c
199. Reed is an avid basketball fan who is excited by the fact that the local professional team has won the first
five games of the season. Based on this early performance, Reed is looking forward to a record-breaking season.
Why does this faulty logic illustrate an error in statistical reasoning?
a. Later performance is seldom related to early performance.
b. Small samples are the most accurate representation of final outcomes.
c. Small samples cannot be expected to provide reliable indications of long-run performance.
d. Winning streaks usually last for only a short period of time.
ANSWER: c
200. As Dr. Trelawny marks the first three midterms for her class, she notes that the grades are very high. She
then thinks that this class must be exceptionally bright. What is Dr. Trelawny using to make this illogical
assumption?
a. gambler’s fallacy
b. overestimating the improbable
c. confirmation bias
d. belief in the law of small numbers
ANSWER: d
201. Many people mistakenly believe their chances of dying in an airplane crash are greater than their chances
of dying in an automobile crash. What is reflected in this belief?
a. belief in the law of small numbers
d. confirmation bias
ANSWER: c
202. There have been several reports in the news about the Avian Flu, including reports of a number of deaths.
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Other forms of flu kill many more people every year, but many people state that the Avian Flu is much more
dangerous. What is likely responsible for this overestimation of the danger of Avian Flu?
c. belief in the law of small numbers
ANSWER: b
203. Maribel is on a jury, and she is already convinced that the defendant in the case is not guilty. She listens
very attentively to everything the defence attorneys have to say, but she tends to pay less attention when the
prosecution is presenting evidence. What seems to be influencing Maribel’s behaviour in this instance?
a. overconfidence effect
c. base-rate fallacy
ANSWER: d
204. You believe that getting a degree in business will guarantee you a high-paying career. Every time you hear
about someone with a prestigious career and a business degree, you take this as evidence to support your belief.
What will you NOT do if you are vulnerable to confirmation bias?
a. Stick to your belief unless you hear a lot of supporting evidence.
b. Selectively ignore information that runs contrary to your belief about business degrees.
c. Look for more evidence that people with business degrees make a lot of money.
d. Look for evidence that some people with business degrees have low-paying careers.
ANSWER: d
205. What is a result of having a confirmation bias?

a. New information is interpreted as consistent with an existing belief.
b. It allows people to make accurate decisions more quickly.
c. It interferes with our ability to accurately code and store information.
d. It tends to produce mental set and functional fixedness.
ANSWER: a
206. What is the name of the chimp who learned to sign 160 words after her trainers taught her using American
Sign Language (ASL)?
a. Washoe
b. Gardner
c. Willie
d. Beatrice
ANSWER: a
207. Corey was serving on a jury in a criminal case, and the jury reached a unanimous “not guilty” verdict.
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Several months later, some additional evidence came to light that strongly suggested that the defendant was, in
fact, guilty of the crime in question. Corey is still not convinced by the new evidence, and claims he wouldn’t
have voted guilty, even if the new information had been presented during the trial. What is Corey demonstrating
in this example?
a. conjunction fallacy
b. mental set
c. belief perseverance
ANSWER: c
208. You applied for a job at a local store. You got an interview but were not offered a position. The next week,
you see a very pretty new girl working behind the counter. You tell your friends that you didn’t get the job
because the manager hired the pretty girl rather than someone who was better qualified for the job. A week
later, one of your friends tells you that the girl who was hired had four years of retail experience and glowing
letters of reference. You still believe that her looks got her the job. What does your opinion demonstrate?
b. overestimation of the improbable
c. belief perseverance
d. mental set
ANSWER: c
209. Which term refers to a highly popular method for learning a second language in Canada?
a. immersion
b. elementary school
c. university
d. home-schooling
ANSWER: a
210. Which type of decision does research indicate people find most satisfying?
a. unconscious
b. conscious
c. preconscious
d. semi-conscious
ANSWER: a
211. According to Kahneman and Tversky, when are people much more likely to take risks?
a. when they are seeking to avoid losses
b. when the issue is framed in terms of probability of success
c. when the probability of success is equal to the probability of failure
d. when they are not asked to provide rationales for their choices
ANSWER: a

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212. When people are seeking gains, what is their likelihood of making risky decisions, compared to when they
are attempting to cut their losses?
a. equally likely in both situations
b. less likely when seeking gains
c. more likely when seeking gains
d. less likely when seeking gains if female, but more likely if male
ANSWER: b
213. Fred needs major heart surgery, and he has consulted with two doctors about the operation. Dr. Marx tells
Fred he has a 90 percent chance of surviving the surgery; Dr. Scalli tells Fred there is a 10 percent chance that
he won’t survive the surgery. What is most likely, based on Kahneman and Tversky’s research?
a. Fred won’t care who does the surgery because both doctors have presented the same information.
b. Fred will probably avoid deciding until it is too late.
c. Fred is most likely to let Dr. Scalli perform the operation.
d. Fred is most likely to let Dr. Marx perform the operation.
ANSWER: d
214. Researchers presented two groups of physicians with information regarding a surgical procedure. The first
group of physicians were told that, on average, 15 out of 100 people die as a result of the surgery; the remaining
group of physicians were told that on average 85 out of 100 people survive the surgery. What should you
expect?
a. Both groups of physicians would recommend the surgical procedure to their patients.
b. Neither group of physicians would recommend the surgical procedure to their patients.
c. The first group of physicians would be more likely to recommend the surgical procedure to their
patients.
d. The second group of physicians would be more likely to recommend the surgical procedure to their
patients.
ANSWER: d
215. A sales representative from an investment company is trying to convince a young couple to invest in one of
the company’s mutual funds. What will most increase his likelihood of success, based on the framing effect?
a. He leaves a detailed prospectus containing a lot of statistical analyses.
b. He stresses that the fund has lost money in only 3 of the past 15 years.
c. He stresses that the fund has had solid returns in 12 of the past 15 years.
d. He mentions the names of other people who have invested in the fund.
ANSWER: c
216. Which term refers to the deliberate choice of words to create specific emotional responses?
a. phonemic overextension
b. belief perseverance
c. linguistic relativity
d. semantic slanting

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ANSWER: d
217. A local grocer wanted to cut down on the use of credit cards in his store. He found his business declined
significantly when he imposed a “surcharge” for credit card sales. However, his business boomed when he
offered “rebates” for cash sales, even though customers paid the same amount for products in both cases. What
does this example illustrate?
a. alternative outcomes effect
b. semantic slanting
c. phonemic overextension
d. conjunction fallacy
ANSWER: b
218. “Anyone who agrees with that decision must be an uneducated bigot.” What is the term for this type of
statement?
b. framing
c. semantic overextension
d. anticipatory name calling
ANSWER: d
219. Which of the following is an example of semantic slanting?

a. changing the name of a restaurant so that it rhymes with the name of the city
b. referring to a funeral as a “celebration of life”
c. calling your enemy a moron
d. seeing the glass as half full, rather than half empty
ANSWER: b
Jesse
Jesse was playing with marbles when one of the marbles fell into a heating vent in the floor. Jesse could see the
marble, but he couldn’t reach it because the slats of the vent were too close together for his hand, and he
couldn’t remove the lid. Jesse said, rather sarcastically to himself, “Well, that’s just fabulous.” He looked
around the room for something that he could use to retrieve the marble. When he saw his juice glass with the
straw in it, he got an idea. He took the straw, carefully lowered it into the vent until it touched the marble. Then
he sucked on the straw so that it “grabbed” the marble as he gently raised it back up into his waiting hand. Quite
pleased with himself, and a little dizzy, Jesse went back to playing marbles.
220. What was Jesse demonstrating when he used sarcasm?
a. metalinguistic awareness
b. telegraphic speech
c. overregularization
d. fast mapping
ANSWER: a

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221. What age would you expect Jesse to be, based on his use of sarcasm?
a. 3 years
b. 6 years
c. 9 years
d. 12 years
ANSWER: b
222. Which sort of basic problem does Jesse have to solve when he is confronted with a marble that he can’t
reach?
b. problem of transformation
c. an algorithmic problem
d. problem of inducing structure
ANSWER: a
223. As Jesse was attempting to solve the problem, he got an idea when he saw the straw in the juice glass.
What is the term that is used for recognizing a solution to a problem in this way?
a. field dependence
b. anagram
c. mental set
d. insight
ANSWER: d
224. What did it illustrate when Jesse recognized that the straw could be used for something other than drinking
juice?
a. using an algorithm
b. overcoming functional fixedness
c. overcoming the problem space
d. using a trial-and-error approach
ANSWER: b
225. Outline the key properties of language and use these properties to evaluate the ape-language controversy.
ANSWER: Language is symbolic, and thus it allows us to communicate about objects and events that are distant
in time and place. Although the symbols in language are arbitrary, they have shared meanings for
those who speak the same language, and so language is semantic. Language is also generative; its
limited symbols can be combined to form an infinite variety of messages. Finally, language is
structured. Although an infinite number of sentences is possible, these must be constructed in a
limited number of ways.
The communications of the trained chimps are clearly symbolic and semantic. Evidence regarding
generativity is more questionable. Although chimps have generated many new combinations of
symbols, doubts have been raised as to whether these sentences are truly spontaneous and creative.
For the most part, evidence for chimps’ grasp of language structure has been negative. A notable
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exception, however, is Sue Savage-Rumbaugh’s training of the chimp Kanzi, who appeared to
master rules of syntax. Her study raises the possibility that language may not be a uniquely human
capacity.
226. Compare and contrast the behaviourist and nativist theories of language acquisition. What is the
interactionist view, and how has it arisen out of dissatisfaction with the other two approaches?
ANSWER: Behaviourists represent the extreme “nurture” position on this issue. First proposed by Skinner, the
behaviourist view is that language is conditioned through imitation and reinforcement. Being
understood, getting what you asked for, and being responded to in a conversation are powerful
reinforcers that shape children’s increasingly complex vocalizations. Nativists, as exemplified by
Noam Chomsky, represent the extreme “nature” position on this issue. Impressed with the apparent
ease and rapidity with which young children acquire language, and critical of the inefficiency of
imitation and reinforcement as the underlying processes, Chomsky proposed that humans have an
innate “language acquisition device.” In this view, the brain is preprogrammed to acquire language
effortlessly, with minimal input. According to Chomsky, children learn the rules of language, rather
than specific word combinations.
Mirroring the history of the nature-nurture debate in general, the interactionist view regards both
approaches as too extreme, asserting instead that heredity and environment both contribute
significantly to language development. While acknowledging our biological preparedness for
learning language, interactionists also regard children’s social exchanges with parents and others as
crucial. Thus, language depends on both an innate predisposition and a supportive environment.
227. Name and describe the three types of problems identified by Greeno (1978) and indicate which of the six
approaches to problem solving discussed in your text would be helpful and unhelpful in solving each type of
problem.
ANSWER: Problems of inducing structure: The subject must discover the relations among the parts of the
problem. Examples include series-completion problems and analogy problems. Working backward
can’t be applied since the goal state is unknown. It would be helpful to form subgoals. For instance,
to solve analogy problems, the first subgoal is to figure out all the possible relations between the
first two parts of the analogy.
Problems of arrangement: The subject must arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies
some criterion (although the specific goal state is not known). These are generally solved in a flash
of insight after a period of trial and error. Anagrams are an example of this type of problem. Trial
and error might be effective if the number of possible solutions is small. Working backward,
particularly if there are relatively few goal states, might be helpful. Changing the representation of
the problem may help overcome mental set or functional fixedness.
Problems of transformation: The subject must carry out a sequence of transformations in order to
reach a specific goal. These problems are generally solved by carrying out a sequence of planned
steps.
228. How does risky decision making differ from making decisions about preferences? How do people generally
make each type of decision?
ANSWER: Making decisions about preferences involves selecting from an array of known options (for

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example, choosing an apartment). In this type of decision task, when the number of options is small,
people generally use an additive or a weighted additive strategy. When the number of options is
large, people are more likely to favour a strategy such as elimination by aspects. In all decisions of
this type, people demonstrate a limited ability to process and evaluate a large number of attributes
and options.
Risky decision making involves making decisions under conditions of uncertainty. In such cases,
people frequently make irrational decisions that deviate from an objective assessment of the
probabilities of different outcomes. Sometimes people base risky decisions on what the different
outcomes are personally worth to them (subjective utility). Sometimes they estimate subjective
probabilities of various outcomes, using mental (often inaccurate) shortcuts such as the
representativeness heuristic and the availability heuristic. Overall, people are not as rational and
systematic in their decision making as they believe themselves to be.

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

3. Which of the following is NOT a cognitive activity?

4. What led to the “cognitive revolution” in the 1950s?

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

8. What do we mean when we say that language is generative?

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

13. How many phonemes does the English language use?

14. Phonemes are the smallest units of which component of language?

15. Which statement does NOT accurately describe phonemes?

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

18. Morphemes are the smallest units of which component of language?

19. What is the smallest unit of meaning in a language?

23. How many morphemes are in the word “unchangeable”?

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

25. What is the function of the component of language called semantics?

26. What is the denotation of a word?

27. What is the connotation of a word?

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

31. For which of the following do we use syntax?

32. Which statement best describes syntax?

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

36. At about what age do babies start babbling?

37. Which statement best describes babbling?

38. Which statement does NOT accurately describe babbling?

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

46. In general, which statement best describes toddlers’ language abilities?

48. What is fast mapping?

50. Which of the following is a case of overextension?

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

65. What is metalinguistic awareness?

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

68. Which statement best describes bilingualism?

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

77. Why do children learn a language, according to Skinner?

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

80. What is a criticism of the behaviourist model of language acquisition?

83. Which statement is consistent with Noam Chomsky’s theories of language?

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

90. What is associated with cognitive theories of language acquisition?

Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

99. What is predicted by the linguistic relativity hypothesis?

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

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Chapter 8 - Language and Thought

111. What is functional fixedness?

112. What does functional fixedness refer to?