Chapter 8 Special Senses

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Thirteenth Edition
Global Edition
Chapter 8
Special Senses
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Special Senses
• Special senses include:
– Smell
– Taste
– Sight
– Hearing
– Equilibrium
• Special sense receptors
– Large, complex sensory organs (eye and ear)
– Localized clusters of receptors (taste buds and
olfactory epithelium)

Concept Link
Recall the three basic functions of the nervous system
(Figure 7.1, p. 243). Each of the special senses gathers
unique sensory information that, once integrated, will
influence motor output. For example, if you saw a ball
moving toward your head, this sensory input might result
in a motor output that would move your body out of the
path of the ball. Additionally, recall that each type of
sensory information is processed in a specialized area of
the cerebrum (Figure 7.13c, p. 259).

Part I : The Eye and Vision
one
• 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the eyes

• Each eye has over 1 million nerve fibers carrying
information to the brain

Anatomy of the Eye
• Accessory structures include the:
– Extrinsic eye muscles
– Eyelids
– Conjunctiva
– Lacrimal apparatus

Figure 8.1 Surface Anatomy of the Eye
and Accessory Structures

External and Accessory
Structures (1 of 5)
• Eyelids
– Meet at the medial and lateral commissure (canthus)
• Eyelashes
– Tarsal glands produce an oily secretion that lubricates
the eye
– Ciliary glands are located between the eyelashes

Structures (2 of 5)
• Conjunctiva
– Membrane that lines the eyelids and eyeball
– Connects with the transparent cornea
– Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye and keep it moist

Structures (3 of 5)
• Lacrimal apparatus = lacrimal gland + ducts
– Lacrimal gland—produces lacrimal fluid (tears);
situated on lateral end of each eye
– Tears drain across the eye into the lacrimal canaliculi,
then the lacrimal sac, and into the nasolacrimal duct,
which empties into the nasal cavity

Structures (4 of 5)
• Tears contain:
– Dilute salt solution
– Mucus
– Antibodies
– Lysozyme (enzyme that destroys bacteria)
• Function of tears
– Cleanse, protect, moisten, lubricate the eye

Figure 8.2a Accessory Structures of the
Eye

Figure 8.2b Accessory Structures of the
Eye

Structures (5 of 5)
• Extrinsic eye muscles
– Six muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye
– Produce gross eye movements

Figure 8.3a Extrinsic Muscles of the
Eye

Figure 8.3b Extrinsic Muscles of the
Eye

Figure 8.3c Extrinsic Muscles of the
Eye

Internal Structures: The Eyeball (1 of 13)
• Three layers, or tunics, form the wall of the eyeball
– Fibrous layer: outside layer
– Vascular layer: middle layer
– Sensory layer: inside layer
• Humors are fluids that fill the interior of the eyeball
• Lens divides the eye into two chambers

Figure 8.4a Internal Anatomy of the Eye
(Sagittal Section) (1 of 3)

Figure 8.4b Internal Anatomy of the
Eye (Sagittal Section) (1 of 2)

• Fibrous layer = sclera + cornea
– Sclera
▪ White connective tissue layer
▪ Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
– Cornea
▪ Transparent, central anterior portion
▪ Allows for light to pass through
▪ Repairs itself easily
▪ The only human tissue that can be transplanted
without fear of rejection due to lack of blood
vessels
• Vascular layer
– Choroid is a blood-rich nutritive layer that contains a
pigment (prevents light from scattering)
– Choroid is modified anteriorly into two smooth muscle
structures
▪ Ciliary body—attached to lens by a suspensory
ligament called the ciliary zonule
▪ Iris—regulates amount of light entering eye
– Pigmented layer that gives eye color
– Pupil—rounded opening in the iris

• Sensory layer
– Retina contains two layers
1. Outer pigmented layer absorbs light and prevents it
from scattering
2. Inner neural layer contains receptor cells
(photoreceptors)
– Rods
– Cones

• Sensory layer
– Electrical signals pass from photoreceptors via a
two-neuron chain
▪ Bipolar cells
▪ Ganglion cells
– Signals leave the retina toward the brain through
the optic nerve
– Optic disc (blind spot) is where the optic nerve
leaves the eyeball
▪ Cannot see images focused on the optic disc

Figure 8.5a The Three Major Types of
Neurons Composing the Retina

Figure 8.5b The Three Major Types of
Neurons Composing the Retina

• Sensory layer
– Rods
▪ Most are found toward the edges of the retina
▪ Allow vision in dim light and peripheral vision
▪ All perception is in gray tones

• Sensory layer
– Cones
▪ Allow for detailed color vision
▪ Densest in the center of the retina
▪ Fovea centralis–lateral to blind spot
– Area of the retina with only cones
– Visual acuity (sharpest vision) is here
– No photoreceptor cells are at the optic disc, or blind
spot

• Sensory layer
– Cone sensitivity
▪ Three types of cones
▪ Each cone type is sensitive to different
wavelengths of visible light

Figure 8.6 Sensitivities of the Three Cone Types
to Different Wavelengths of Visible Light

• Lens
– Flexible, biconvex crystal-like structure
– Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to
the ciliary body


• Lens divides the eye into two segments, or chambers
1. Anterior (aqueous) segment
▪ Anterior to the lens
▪ Contains aqueous humor, a clear, watery fluid
2. Posterior (vitreous) segment
▪ Posterior to the lens
▪ Contains vitreous humor, a gel-like substance


Figure 8.4b Internal Anatomy of the Eye

• Aqueous humor
– Watery fluid found between lens and cornea
– Similar to blood plasma
– Helps maintain intraocular pressure
– Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
– Reabsorbed into venous blood through the scleral
venous sinus, or canal of Schlemm

• Vitreous humor
– Gel-like substance posterior to the lens
– Prevents the eye from collapsing
– Helps maintain intraocular pressure

• Ophthalmoscope
– Instrument used to illuminate the interior of the eyeball
and fundus (posterior wall)
– Can detect diabetes, arteriosclerosis, degeneration of
the optic nerve and retina

Figure 8.7 The Posterior Wall (Fundus) of the
Retina as Seen With an Ophthalmoscope

Physiology of Vision (1 of 7)
• Pathway of light through the eye and light refraction
– Light must be focused to a point on the retina for
optimal vision
– Light is bent, or refracted, by the cornea, aqueous
humor, lens, and vitreous humor
– The eye is set for distant vision (over 20 feet away)
– Accommodation—the lens must change shape to
focus on closer objects (less than 20 feet away)

Figure 8.8 Relative Convexity of the Lens
During Focusing for Distant and Close Vision

• Pathway of light through the eye and light refraction
– Image formed on the retina is a real image
– Real images are:
▪ Reversed from left to right
▪ Upside down
▪ Smaller than the object

Figure 8.9 Real Image (Reversed Left to Right,
and Upside Down) Formed on the Retina

• Visual fields and visual pathways to the brain
– Optic nerve
▪ Bundle of axons that exit the back of the eye
carrying impulses from the retina
– Optic chiasma
▪ Location where the optic nerves cross
▪ Fibers from the medial side of each eye cross over
to the opposite side of the brain

• Visual fields and visual pathways to the brain
– Optic tracts
▪ Contain fibers from the lateral side of the eye on the
same side and the medial side of the opposite eye
▪ Synapse with neurons in the thalamus
– Optic radiation
▪ Axons from the thalamus run to the occipital lobe
▪ Synapse with cortical cells, and vision interpretation
(seeing) occurs

• Summary of the pathway of impulses from the retina to
the point of visual interpretation
1. Optic nerve
2. Optic chiasma
3. Optic tract
4. Thalamus
5. Optic radiation
6. Visual cortex in occipital lobe of brain

Figure 8.10 Visual Fields of the Eyes and
Visual Pathway to the Brain (Inferior View)

• Visual fields
– Each eye “sees” a slightly different view
– Field of view overlaps for each eye
• Binocular vision results and provides:
– Depth perception (three-dimensional vision)

A Closer Look (1 of 3)
• Emmetropia—eye focuses images correctly on the retina
• Myopia (nearsightedness)
– Distant objects appear blurry
– Light from those objects fails to reach the retina and
are focused in front of it
– Results from an eyeball that is too long

• Hyperopia (farsightedness)
– Near objects are blurry, whereas distant objects are
clear
– Distant objects are focused behind the retina
– Results from an eyeball that is too short or from a
“lazy lens”

• Astigmatism
– Images are blurry
– Results from light focusing as lines, not points, on the
retina because of unequal curvatures of the cornea or
lens

A Closer Look 8.2 Bringing Things Into
Focus

• Eye reflexes
– Convergence: reflexive movement of the eyes
medially when we focus on a close object
– Photopupillary reflex: bright light causes pupils to
constrict
– Accommodation pupillary reflex: viewing close
objects causes pupils to constrict

Part II : The Ear: Hearing and Balance
Two
• Ear houses two senses

1. Hearing
2. Equilibrium (balance)
• Receptors are mechanoreceptors
• Different organs house receptors for each sense

Anatomy of the Ear (1 of 6)
• The ear is divided into three areas
1. External (outer) ear
2. Middle ear
3. Internal (inner) ear

Figure 8.11 Anatomy of the Ear (1 of 3)

• External (outer) ear
– Auricle (pinna)
– External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
▪ Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
▪ Lined with skin and ceruminous (earwax) glands
– Glands secrete cerumen (earwax)
– Cerumen traps foreign objects and repels insects
▪ Ends at the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
– External ear is involved only in collecting sound waves

• Middle ear cavity (tympanic cavity)
– Air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the temporal bone
– Involved only in the sense of hearing
– Located between tympanic membrane (laterally) and
medially by a bony wall with two openings:
▪ Oval window
▪ Round window

– Pharyngotympanic tube (auditory tube)
▪ Links middle ear cavity with the throat
▪ Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity so the
eardrum can vibrate

– Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity
1. Malleus (hammer)
2. Incus (anvil)
3. Stapes (stirrup)
– Function
▪ Transmit and amplify vibrations from tympanic
membrane to the fluids of the inner ear
▪ Vibrations travel from the hammer  anvil
 stirrup  oval window of inner ear

• Internal (inner) ear
– Includes sense organs for hearing and balance
– Bony labyrinth (osseous labyrinth) consists of:
▪ Cochlea
▪ Vestibule
▪ Semicircular canals
– Bony labyrinth is filled with perilymph
▪ Membranous labyrinth is suspended in perilymph
and contains endolymph


Hearing (1 of 4)
• Spiral organ of Corti
– Located within the cochlear duct
– Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane
– Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of bending hair
cells
– Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits nerve
impulses to auditory cortex on temporal lobe

Figure 8.12a Anatomy of the Cochlea

Figure 8.12b Anatomy of the Cochlea

Hearing (2 of 4)
• Pathway of vibrations from sound waves
1. Auricle (pinna)
2. External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
3. Tympanic membrane
4. Ossicles amplify the sound waves
5. Oval window
6. Basilar membrane in the spiral organ of Corti
7. Hair cells of the tectorial membrane are bent when
the basilar membrane vibrates against it

Hearing (3 of 4)
• Pathway of vibrations from sound waves
8. An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
(cranial nerve VIII)
9. Impulse travels to the auditory cortex in the

temporal lobe

Figure 8.13 Route of Sound Waves
Through the Ear

Hearing (4 of 4)
• High-pitched sounds disturb the short, stiff fibers of the
basilar membrane
– Receptor cells close to the oval window are stimulated
• Low-pitched sounds disturb the long, floppy fibers of the
basilar membrane
– Specific hair cells further along the cochlea are
affected

Figure 8.14 Activation of the Cochlear
Hair Cells

Equilibrium
• Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are called the
vestibular apparatus
• Vestibular apparatus has two functional parts
1. Static equilibrium
2. Dynamic equilibrium

Static Equilibrium
• Maculae—receptors in the vestibule
– Report on the position of the head
– Help us keep our head erect
– Send information via the vestibular nerve (division of
cranial nerve VIII ) to the cerebellum of the brain
• Anatomy of the maculae
– Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane
– Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around hair cells
– Movements cause otoliths to roll and bend hair cells

Figure 8.15a Structure and Function of
Maculae (Static Equilibrium Receptors)

Figure 8.15b Structure and Function of
Maculae (Static Equilibrium Receptors)

Dynamic Equilibrium
• Crista ampullaris
– Responds to angular or rotational movements of the
head
– Located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal
– Tuft of hair cells covered with cupula (gelatinous cap)
– If the head moves, the cupula drags against the
endolymph
– Hair cells are stimulated, and the impulse travels the
vestibular nerve to the cerebellum

Figure 8.16a Structure and Function of the Crista
Ampullaris (Dynamic Equilibrium Receptor
Region) (1 of 3)

Figure 8.16b Structure and Function of the Crista
Region) (2 of 3)

Figure 8.16c Structure and Function of the Crista
Region) (3 of 3)

Hearing and Equilibrium Deficits
• Deafness is any degree of hearing loss
– Conduction deafness results when the transmission of
sound vibrations through the external and middle ears
is hindered
– Sensorineural deafness results from damage to the
nervous system structures involved in hearing
– Ménière’s syndrome affects the inner ear and causes
progressive deafness and perhaps vertigo (sensation
of spinning)

Part III : Chemical Senses: Smell and
Three
Taste
• Chemoreceptors
– Stimulated by chemicals in solution
– Taste has five types of receptors
– Smell can differentiate a wider range of chemicals
• Both senses complement each other and respond to
many of the same stimuli

Olfactory Receptors and the Sense of
Smell
• Olfactory receptors are in roof of nasal cavity
– Olfactory receptor cells (neurons) with long cilia
known as olfactory hairs detect chemicals
– Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for detection
by chemoreceptors called olfactory receptors
• Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory filaments to
the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I)
• Smells are interpreted in the olfactory cortex

Figure 8.17 Location and Cellular
Makeup of the Olfactory Epithelium

Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste (1 of 5)
• Taste buds house the receptor organs
• Locations of taste buds
– Most are on the tongue
– Soft palate
– Superior part of the pharynx
– Cheeks

• The tongue is covered with projections called papillae
that contain taste buds
– Vallate (circumvallate) papillae
– Fungiform papillae
– Filiform papillae

Figure 8.18a Location and Structure of
Taste Buds

Figure 8.18b Location and Structure of
Taste Buds

• Gustatory cells are the taste receptors
– Possess gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
– Gustatory hairs protrude through a taste pore
– Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in saliva

Figure 8.18c Location and Structure of
Taste Buds

• Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex by several
cranial nerves because taste buds are found in different
areas
– Facial nerve (cranial nerve VII)
– Glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX)
– Vagus nerve (cranial nerve X)
• Taste buds are replaced frequently by basal cells

• Five basic taste sensations
– Sweet receptors respond to sugars, saccharine, some
amino acids
– Sour receptors respond to H ions or acids
– Bitter receptors respond to alkaloids
– Salty receptors respond to metal ions
– Umami receptors respond to the amino acid
glutamate or the beefy taste of meat

Part Four
IV : Developmental Aspects of the
Special Senses (1 of 5)
• Special sense organs are formed early in embryonic
development
• Maternal infections during the first 5 or 6 weeks of
pregnancy may cause visual abnormalities as well as
sensorineural deafness in the developing child

Part Four
• Vision requires the most learning
• The infant has poor visual acuity (is farsighted) and lacks
color vision and depth perception at birth
• The eye continues to grow and mature until age 8 or 9

Part Four
• Age-related eye issues
– Presbyopia—“old vision” results from decreasing lens
elasticity that accompanies aging
▪ Causes difficulty to focus for close vision
– Lacrimal glands become less active
– Lens becomes discolored
– Dilator muscles of iris become less efficient, causing
pupils to remain constricted

Part Four
• The newborn infant can hear sounds, but initial responses are
reflexive
• By the toddler stage, the child is listening critically and
beginning to imitate sounds as language development begins
• Age-related ear problems
– Presbycusis—type of sensorineural deafness that may
result from otosclerosis
▪ Otosclerosis—ear ossicles fuse
– Congenital ear problems usually result from missing pinnas
and closed or missing external acoustic meatuses

Part Four
• Taste and smell are most acute at birth and decrease in
sensitivity after age 40 as the number of olfactory and
gustatory receptors decreases

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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

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• 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the eyes

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• Ear houses two senses

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