4.1.additive Manufacturing

Additive Manufacturing
March 2023
Introduction to Additive manufacturing (AM)
• Additive manufacturing is the formalized term for what used to be
called rapid prototyping and what is popularly called 3D Printing.
• The term rapid prototyping (RP) was used in a variety of industries
to describe a process for rapidly creating a system or part
representation before final release or commercialization.
• Many parts are in fact now directly manufactured, so it sounded
odd to to label them as “prototypes.”
• The term rapid prototyping also overlooks the basic fact that parts
are made using an additive approach.
• Initially a model is generated using a three-dimensional Computer-
Aided Design (3D CAD) system.
• AM technology significantly simplifies the process of producing
complex 3D objects directly from CAD data.
• Other manufacturing processes require a careful and detailed
analysis of the part geometry to determine things like the
• order in which different features can be fabricated,
• what tools and processes must be used, and
• what additional fixtures may be required to complete the part.
• AM needs only
• some basic dimensional details
• small amount of understanding as to how the AM machine works and
• the materials that are used to build the part.
• In AM, parts are made by adding material in layers.
• The major ways that each AM technology differ are in the
• materials that can be used,
• how the layers are created, and
• how the layers are bonded to each other.
Distinctions of Additive manufacturing (AM)
• Shares some similarity with CNC machining technology.
• CNC is also a computer-based technology that is used to
manufacture products.
• CNC differs mainly in that it is primarily a subtractive rather than
additive process.
• AM technology can be used to produce a part in a single stage.
• CNC machines require considerable setup and process planning,
particularly as parts become more complex in their geometry.
• The higher the geometric complexity, the greater the advantage AM

has over CNC.
• AM processes are not constrained with undercuts and internal
features as it can be easily built without specific process planning.
• Certain parts cannot be fabricated by CNC unless they are broken
up into components and reassembled at a later stage.
Geometrically complex forms
Diegel, O. et. al (2020)

• AM machines have different resolution along different orthogonal
axes.
• Typically, the vertical build axis corresponds to layer thickness and
this would be of a lower resolution compared with the two axes in
the build plane.
• The accuracy of CNC machines depend on positioning resolution
along all three orthogonal axes and other factors like the diameter
of the rotary cutting tools, tool geometry, material properties, etc.
• AM machines essentially break up a complex, 3D shapes into a
series of simple 2D cross-sections with a nominal thickness.
• In CNC, surfaces are generated in 3D space.
• Determining the program sequence for a CNC machine can be very
involved, including tool selection, machine speed settings, approach
position and angle, etc.
• Many AM machines also have options that must be selected, but
the range, complexity, and implications surrounding their choice are
minimal in comparison.
• The worst that is likely to happen in most AM machines is that the
part will not be built very well if the programming is not done
properly.
• Incorrect programming of a CNC machine could result in severe
damage to the machine and may even be a human safety risk.
General Steps of AM Processes
Eight key steps in the AM process sequence:
1. Conceptualization and CAD –
• The generic AM process must start with 3D Computer-
Aided Design (CAD) information.
• The process of producing a 3D CAD model from an idea
in the designer’s mind will require CAD software.
• Other ways for creating the 3D source data – Reverse-
Engineering (RE) 3D imaging equipment like Laser-
scanning and touch-probe technology and RE software
like Geomagic.
2. Conversion to STL/AMF –
• Almost all AM technology available today uses the
STereoLithography (STL) file format.
• The STL format of a 3D CAD model captures all surfaces of the 3D
model by means of stitching triangles of various sizes on its
surfaces.
• The STL format stores only geometric information while information
such as unit, color, material, etc. of the built part is lost through the
file translation process.
• A number of software tools are developed to detect errors in STL
and to rectify them if possible – e.g. MAGICS software from the
Belgian company Materialise.
STL File
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.grabcad.com
2. Conversion to STL/AMF –
• The “AMF” format was developed specifically to address these
issues and limitations, and is now the ASTM/ISO standard format.
• Beyond geometry information, it also contains dimensions, color,
material, and additional information is also possible with this file
format.
3. Transfer and manipulation of STL/AMF file on AM machine
• Once the STL file has been created and repaired, it can be sent
directly to the target AM machine.
• Repositioning of the part or even changing the orientation may be
done to allow it to be built at a specific location within the machine.
• Scaling may be required prior to building - to account for process
shrinkage or coatings and so on.
3. Transfer and manipulation of STL/AMF file on AM machine
• Addition of text and simple features may be required- for the part
be identified. For e.g., adding 3D embossed characters.
• Numerous STL file manipulation software tools are available for
purchase or, in some cases, for free download to perform these
functions prior to sending the file to a machine.
4. Machine setup - software
• At least some setup parameters specific to a machine or process.
• Some machines work with a few specific materials and few options
to change build parameters (e.g., layer thickness) – hence very few
setup changes are required.
• Other machines run with a variety of materials and may also allow
some parameters to be changed (e.g., build quicker but with poorer
resolution ) - Such machines may require more setups.
• Default settings or using files from previously defined setups to
speed up the machine setup process and to prevent mistakes being
made.
4. Machine setup - physical
• Make sure sufficient build material is loaded into the machine to
complete the build.
• For machines which use powder, sifting, loading and levelling may
be required.
5. Build
• Once the steps are completed, the process switches to the
computer-controlled building phase.
• This is where the layer-based manufacturing takes place.
• All AM machines have a similar sequence of layering, including
• a height adjustable platform or deposition head,
• material deposition / spreading mechanisms, and
• layer cross-section formation.
6. Part removal and cleanup
• Ideally, the output from the AM machine should be ready for use
with minimal manual intervention.
• More often, parts will require a significant amount of post-
processing before they are ready for use.
• In all cases, the part must be either separated from a build
platform or removed from excess build material surrounding the
part.
• Some AM processes use additional material other than that used
to make the part itself (secondary support materials).
7. Post-processing of part
• Post-processing refers to the stages of finishing the parts for
application purposes.
• This may involve abrasive finishing, like polishing and
sandpapering, or application of coatings.
8. Application -
AM Classification Schemes
1. According to baseline technology, like whether the process uses
lasers, printer technology, extrusion technology, etc.
2. According to the type of raw material input.
3. Using a two-dimensional classification method.
• First dimension – based on method by which the layers are constructed.
• Second dimension – based on material classifications like liquid polymer,
discrete particles, molten material, and laminated sheets
4. Grouping of AM technology – Based on processes which use a
common type of machine architecture and similar materials
transformation physics.
Two-dimensional classification method
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net
Machine Architecture & Materials Transformation Physics
1. Vat photopolymerization: processes that utilize a liquid
photopolymer that is contained in a vat and processed by
selectively delivering energy to cure specific regions of a part
cross-section.
2. Powder bed fusion: processes that utilize a container filled with
powder that is processed selectively using an energy source, most
commonly a scanning laser or electron beam.
3. Material extrusion: processes that deposit a material by extruding
it through a nozzle, typically while scanning the nozzle in a pattern
that produces a part cross-section.
4. Material jetting: ink-jet printing processes.
Machine architecture & Materials Transformation Physics
5. Binder jetting: processes where a binder is printed into a powder
bed in order to form part cross-sections
6. Sheet lamination: processes that deposit a layer of material at a
time, where the material is in sheet form.
7. Directed energy deposition: processes that simultaneously deposit
a material (usually powder or wire) and provide energy to process
that material through a single deposition device.
Vat Photopolymerization Processes
• Photopolymerization processes make use of liquid, radiation-
curable resins, called photopolymers, as their primary materials.
• Most photopolymers react to radiation in the ultraviolet (UV) range
of wavelengths, but some visible light systems are used as well.
• Upon irradiation, these materials undergo a chemical reaction to
become solid.
• This reaction is called photopolymerization, and is typically
complex, involving many chemical participants.
• Photopolymers were developed in the late 1960s.
Vat Photopolymerization (VP) Processes
• Photo-curable resins are used in dentistry, such as for sealing the
top surfaces of teeth to fill in deep grooves and prevent cavities.
• The term “vat photopolymerization” is a general term that
encompasses stereolithography* (SL) and other related processes.
• Various types of radiation may be used to cure commercial
photopolymers, including gamma rays, X-rays, electron beams, UV,
and in some cases visible light.
• In VP systems, UV and visible light radiation are used most
commonly.
* a technique or process for creating three-dimensional objects, in which a computer-controlled

moving laser beam is used to build up the required structure, layer by layer, from a liquid polymer
that hardens on contact with laser light.
• The approaches:
• Vector scan, or point-wise approaches
• Mask projection, or layer-wise approaches, that irradiate entire
layers at one time,
• Two-photon approaches that are essentially high-resolution point-
by-point approaches
• In the vector scan and two-photon approaches, scanning laser
beams are used.
• While the mask projection approach utilizes a large radiation beam
that is patterned by another device, in this case a Digital
Micromirror DeviceTM (DMD).
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=htt
ps%3A%2F%2Fwww.utwente.nl
• In the two-photon case, photopolymerization occurs at the
intersection of two scanning laser beams.
• VP photopolymers are cross-linked and, as a result, do not melt.
• The epoxy resins produce more accurate, harder, and stronger parts
than the acrylate resins.
• While the polymerization of acrylate compositions leads to 5–20 %
shrinkage, the polymerization of epoxy compositions shrinkage is 1–
2%
• This low level of shrinkage associated with epoxy chemistry
contributes to excellent adhesion and reduced tendency for flexible
substrates to curl during cure.
• Polymerization of the epoxy-based resins is not inhibited by
atmospheric oxygen.
• This gives lower residual odor than acrylic formulations.
• The epoxy resins have disadvantages of slow photospeed and
brittleness of the cured parts.
• Most SL resins commercially available today are epoxides with some
acrylate content.
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Processes
• Developed at the University of Texas at Austin, USA, selective laser

sintering (SLS) was the first commercialized PBF process.
• All other PBF processes are modification of this basic approach to
• enhance machine productivity,
• enable different materials to be processed, and/or
• to avoid specific patented features.
• It includes:
• one or more thermal sources for inducing fusion between powder particles,
• a method for controlling powder fusion to a prescribed region of each layer,
and
• mechanisms for adding and smoothing powder layers.
• The most common thermal sources for PBF are lasers.
• PBF processes which utilize lasers are known as laser sintering (LS)
machines.
• A broad range of materials like polymers, metals, ceramics, and
composites are used.
• Polymer Laser Sintering (pLS) fuses thin layers of powder (typically
0.075– 0.1 mm thick) which have been spread across the build area
using a counter-rotating powder leveling roller.
• The part building process takes place inside an enclosed chamber
filled with nitrogen gas to minimize oxidation and degradation of
the powdered material.
• The powder in the build platform is maintained at an elevated
temperature just below the melting point and/or glass transition
temperature of the powdered material.
• Infrared heaters are placed above the build platform to maintain an
elevated temperature around the part being formed, as well as
above the feed cartridges to preheat the powder prior to spreading
over the build area.
• This preheating of powder and maintenance of an elevated,
uniform temperature within the build platform is necessary:
• To minimize the laser power requirements of the process and
• To prevent warping of the part during the build due to non-uniform thermal
expansion and contraction.
• Once an appropriate powder layer has been formed and preheated,
a focused CO2 laser beam is directed onto the powder bed and is
moved using galvanometers in such a way that it thermally fuses
the material to form the slice cross section.
• Surrounding powder remains loose and serves as support for
subsequent layers, thus eliminating the need for the secondary
supports.
Polymer Laser Sintering (pLS) Process
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fxometry.eu
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiv_u_8vPz9AhU2Sm
wGHTupA24QFnoECAkQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eos.info%2Fen&usg=AOvVaw27tRRirqXfFsMgo3DCSQ9y
• After completing a layer, the build platform is lowered by one layer
thickness and a new layer of powder is laid and leveled using the
counter-rotating roller.
• The beam scans the subsequent slice cross section.
• This process repeats until the complete part is built.
• A cool-down period is typically required to allow the parts to
uniformly come to a low-enough temperature that they can be
handled and exposed to ambient temperature and atmosphere.
• At present, the most common material used in PBF is polyamide, a
thermoplastic polymer, commonly known in the US as nylon.
Polymer Laser Sintering (pLS) Process
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2F3space.com
• Several types of steels, typically stainless and tool steels, titanium
and its alloys, nickel-base alloys, some aluminum alloys, and cobalt-
chrome have been processed and are commercially available in
some form.
• PBF processes are particularly competitive for low-to-medium
volume geometrically complex parts.
• Polymer-based laser sintering is commonly used for prototyping
and end-use applications in many industries.
• Metal PBF processes are becoming increasingly common for
aerospace and biomedical applications, due to their inherent
geometric complexity benefits and their excellent material
properties.
DMLS - in German - "Direkt Metall Laser Schmelzen", (English translation Direct Metal Laser Melting)
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiv_u_8vPz9AhU2S
mwGHTupA24QFnoECAkQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eos.info%2Fen&usg=AOvVaw27tRRirqXfFsMgo3DCSQ9y
Metal Laser Sintering (mLS) examples
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.makepartsfast.com
Extrusion-Based Systems
• There are two primary approaches when using an extrusion
process.
• The most commonly used approach is to use temperature as a way
of controlling the material state.
• Material is liquefied inside a reservoir so that it can flow out
through the nozzle and bond with adjacent material before
solidifying.
• This approach is similar to conventional polymer extrusion
processes, except the extruder is vertically mounted on a plotting
system rather than remaining in a fixed horizontal position.
• An alternative approach is to use a chemical change to cause

solidification.
• In such cases, a curing agent, residual solvent, reaction with air, or
simply drying of a “wet” material is used for bonding to occur.
Key features of extrusion-based system:
• Loading of material –
• A chamber from which the material is extruded
• Preloading the chamber with material
• Continuous supply of material into this chamber
• Liquefaction of the material –
• By heater coils around the chamber
• Also to maintain a constant temperature in the melt.
• Application of pressure to move the material through the nozzle –
Extrusion
• The shape and size of the extruded filament - extrusion nozzle
• Extruded material should ideally remain the same shape and size
• Gravity and surface tension, may cause the material to change shape
• Size may change according to cooling and drying effects
• Plotting according to a predefined path and in a controlled manner
• The extrusion head is typically carried on a plotting system that allows
movement in the horizontal plane.
• This plotting must be coordinated with the extrusion rate to ensure smooth
and consistent deposition.
• Build platform is indexed in the vertical direction to allow formation of
individual layers.
• Bonding of the material to itself or secondary build materials to

form a coherent solid structure –
• If there is insufficient energy, there would be a distinct boundary between
new and previously deposited material.
• Too much energy may cause the previously deposited material to flow,
which in turn may result in a poorly defined part.
• Inclusion of support structures
• for supporting free-standing and disconnected features and for keeping all
features of a part in place during the fabrication process.
• Fabrication of additional supports is required.
• Supports in such systems take two general forms:
• – Similar material supports
• – Secondary material supports
J. Jingchao et. al (2018)

An example:
• Fused deposition modeling (FDM), produced and developed by
Stratasys, USA
• Chamber is heated to liquefy polymer that is fed into the system as
a filament.
• The filament is pushed into the chamber by a tractor wheel
arrangement and it is this pushing that generates the extrusion
pressure.
• The material used are:
• Nylon 12 CF – soft jaws for CNC machining, Automotive glass fixture, end
effectors of robot.
• the ABS M30i (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) - to produce surgical
planning models, medical devices, tools and fixtures.
Fused deposition Modeling (FDM)
https://www.stratasys.com/en/3d-printers/printer-
catalog/fdm-printers/?filter=FDM
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.custompartnet.com
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fall3dp.com
Material Jetting (MJ) Process
• The first commercially successful technology introduced in 1994 -

ModelMaker from Sanders Prototype (now Solidscape), which
printed a basic wax material that was heated to liquid state.
• Second wave of machines arrived on the market with the Quadra
from Objet Geometries of Israel in 2000, followed quickly by the
revised QuadraTempo in 2001.
• Both machines jetted a photopolymer using print heads with over
1,500 nozzles.
• Among those materials most studied and most promising for future
applications are polymers, ceramics, and metals.
• Droplets are created and expelled through the nozzles in the
jetting/print head.
• Based on the form in which the liquid exits the nozzle—as either a
continuous column of liquid or as discrete droplets.
• Continuous stream (CS) and
• Drop-on-demand (DOD).
• In CS mode, a steady pressure is applied to the fluid reservoir,
causing a pressurized column of fluid to be ejected from the nozzle.
• After departing the nozzle, this stream breaks into droplets due to
Rayleigh instability.
• In DOD mode, in contrast, individual droplets are produced directly
from the nozzle.
• Droplets are formed only when individual pressure pulses in the
nozzle cause the fluid to be expelled.
• These pressure pulses are created at specific times by thermal,
electrostatic, piezoelectric, acoustic, or other actuators.
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.
makepartsfast.com
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.beamler.com
• Stratasys Polyjet machines print a number of different acrylic-based
photopolymer materials in 0.0006 inch layers from heads containing
1,536 individual nozzles, resulting in rapid, line-wise deposition
efficiency.
• Each photopolymer layer is cured by ultraviolet light immediately as
it is printed, producing fully cured models without post-curing.
• 3D Systems’ ProJet printers, print layers of 0.0016 inch thickness
using heads with hundreds of nozzles, half for part material and half
for support material.
Binder jetting (BJ) Process
• Binder jetting methods were developed in the early 1990s,
primarily at MIT.
• A binder is printed onto a powder bed to form part cross sections.
• In BJ, only a small portion of the part material is delivered through
the print head.
• Most of the part material is comprised of powder in the powder
bed.
• Typically, binder droplets (80 μm in diameter) form spherical
agglomerates of binder liquid and powder particles as well as
provide bonding to the previously printed layer.
Agglomeration Process
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipc-dresden.de
• Once a layer is printed, the powder bed is lowered and a new layer
of powder is spread onto it.
• This process of printing binder into bed; recoating bed with new
layer of powder is repeated until the part, or array of parts, is
completed.
• The printer head contains several ejection nozzles.
• The printed part is typically left in the powder bed after its
completion in order for the binder to fully set and for the green part
to gain strength.
• Voxeljet uses PMMA (poly-methyl methacrylate) powder and liquid
binder that reacts at room temperature. They recommend that
parts stay in the powder bed for several hours to ensure that the
binder is completely cured.
Binder Jetting (BJ) Process
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.threeding.com
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.exone.com
• Post-processing involves removing the part from the powder bed,
removing unbound powder with pressurized air, and infiltrating the
part with an infiltrant to make it stronger and to impart other
mechanical properties.
• Some machines have color print heads and can print visually
attractive parts.
• In some cases, particularly with elastomeric infiltrants, parts can be
used for functional purposes.
• With polymer powders and wax-based infiltrants, parts can be used
as patterns for investment casting, since the powder and wax can
burn off easily.
• For metal powders, parts can be used as functional prototypes or
for production purposes.
• 3D Systems provides three infiltrants,
• The ColorBond infiltrant, which is acrylate-based and is similar to
superglue,
• StrengthMax infiltrant which is a two-part infiltrant, and
• Salt Water Cure, an eco-friendly and hazard-free infiltrant.
• Binder is water based
• For the stainless steel materials, bronze is used as an infiltrant so
that parts are virtually fully dense.
• Polymer binders are used for the metals.
• In order to fabricate a metal part, the “green” part is removed from
the AM machine, then is subject to three furnace cycles.
• In the first cycle, low temperature is used for several hours to burn
off the polymer binder.
• In the second cycle, high temperature is used to lightly sinter the
metal particles together to improve its strength.
• After this cycle, the part is approximately 60 % dense.
• In the final cycle, a bronze is infiltrated into the part’s pores,
resulting in parts that are 90– 95 % dense.
Sheet Lamination Processes
• First started in 1991 with Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM).
• In form-then-bond processes, sheet material is cut to shape first
and then bonded to the substrate.
• This approach is popular for construction of parts in metallic or
ceramic materials that are thermally bonded (using diffusion
bonding process).
• Offset Fabbing – example of a glue-based form-then-bond process
patented by Ennex Corp., USA.
• A suitable sheet material with an adhesive backing is placed on a
carrier
• It is cut to the outline of the desired cross section using a two-
dimensional plotting knife.
Sheet Lamination Process
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fabbers.com
• The shaped laminate is then placed on top of the previously
deposited layers and bonded to it.
• This process continues until the part is complete.
• Bond-then-form sheet lamination principles have also been
successfully applied for fabrication of parts from metal, ceramic,
and composite materials.
• A wide variety of materials has been processed using a variety of
sheet lamination processes, including plastics, metals, ceramics,
and paper.
• In “bond-then-form” processes, the building process typically
consists of three steps:
• Placing the laminate –
• Bonding it to the substrate - a heated roller passes across the
sheet, melting the adhesive and producing a bond between
layers.
• Cutting it according to the required contour - A laser (or a
mechanical cutting knife) cuts to a depth of one layer thickness
as per the cross-sectional outline based on the slice information.
• This process of bonding and cutting is repeated until the complete
part is built.
• After part construction, the part block is taken out and post-
processed.

4.1.additive Manufacturing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

4.1.additive Manufacturing

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

4.1.additive Manufacturing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Additive Manufacturing

• The higher the geometric complexity, the greater the advantage AM

Diegel, O. et. al (2020)

* a technique or process for creating three-dimensional objects, in which a computer-controlled

• Developed at the University of Texas at Austin, USA, selective laser

• An alternative approach is to use a chemical change to cause

• Bonding of the material to itself or secondary build materials to

J. Jingchao et. al (2018)

• The first commercially successful technology introduced in 1994 -

You might also like