ECE 221: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

MODULE 2: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Hello again! This is your second module. In this module, we are going to take a
look at the operational amplifiers which are the most versatile and widely used of all linear
integrated circuits.
Upon completion of this module, you are expected to be able to:
Analyze and solve differential amplifier problems;
Illustrate the concept of operational amplifiers;
Solve problems in OP-AMP

To ensure the achievement of the learning outcomes, this module is organized into three
topics listed as follows:
Topic 1: Differential Amplifier
Topic 2: Operational Amplifiers

In the previous discussion that we have, we studied a number of electronic devices such
as the diode and the transistors. This devices are individually packaged and
interconnected in a circuit with other devices to form a complete, functional unit. And they
are referred as the discrete components.

Over the years, advances in manufacturing technology have made it possible to produce
entire circuits on a single package or casing, and it is referred to as an integrated circuits
or IC. ICs ranges in complexity from simple circuits containing a few discrete components
(transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors) to complex circuit containing hundreds of
thousands of components. An integrated circuits, such as an operational amplifier (op-
amp) is treated as a signal device. The input circuit used in most op-amp are differential
amplifier.

In this module, we will learn the basics of differential amplifier mode of operation as well
as the operational amplifier operating principles, and basic op-amp operations.

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 ECE 221: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Topic 1: Differential Amplifier

Learning Objectives:
Having successfully completed this lesson, you will be able to:
 Describe the differential amplifier and its modes of signal operation.
 Define and determine the common-mode rejection ration (CMRR)

Time Frame: 2 hours

A differential amplifier also known as a difference amplifier or op-amp subtractor)

is a type of electronic amplifier that produces outputs that are a function of the
difference between two input voltages but suppresses any voltage common to the
two inputs. It is an analog circuit with two inputs (V1 and V2 ) and one output (Vo ) in
which the output is ideally proportional to the difference between the two voltages.

Basic Operation VCC

.
RC RC
- +
VC1 Vo VC2

Q1 Q2

+ +
V1 V2
- -
RE

-VEE
FIGURE 2-1: Differential Input and differential output.

Figure above shows a differential amplifier. It is two CE stages in parallel with a common
emitter resistor. The overall circuit is considered to be one stage with two inputs (𝑉1 and
𝑉2 ) and two collector outputs (𝑉𝐶1 and 𝑉𝐶2). It is called a one stage because there is no
coupling or bypass capacitors and there is no lower cutoff frequency. The ac output voltage
𝑉𝑜 is defined as the voltage between the collectors.

𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶2 − 𝑉𝐶1 (as shown in the polarity)

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 ECE 221: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

This voltage is called a differential output. Ideally, the circuit has identical transistors and
equal collector resistors, with perfect balance, 𝑉𝑜 is zero when the two input voltages are
equal. When 𝑉1 is greater than 𝑉2 , 𝑉𝐶1 is negative and 𝑉𝐶2 is positive. But when 𝑉2 is
greater than 𝑉1, the output voltage is inverted and has the opposite polarity.

Input 1 or 𝑉1 is called the noninverting input because 𝑉𝑜 is in phase with 𝑉1 .

𝑉2 or input 2 is called the inverting input because 𝑉𝑜 is 180𝑜 out of phase with 𝑉2 .

In some applications, only the noninverting input is used and the inverting input is
grounded or the other way around.

When both input voltages are present, the total input is called a differential input because
the output voltage equals to the voltage gain times the difference of the two input voltages.

𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑉 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )

There are three input combination of a differential amplifier.

Single-ended: If an input voltage is applied to either input with the other input
connected to ground.
Double-ended: If two opposite-polarity input voltages are applied
Common-mode: If the same input is applied to both inputs.

DC Analysis
VCC

𝐼𝐶1 𝐼𝐶2
RC RC
- +
VC1 Vo VC2
𝐼𝐵1 𝐼𝐵2
Q1 Q2

𝐼𝐸1 𝐼𝐸2
RE

𝐼𝐸
-VEE

FIGURE 2-2: DC bias of differential amplifier circuit

Since the transistors are identical and collector resistances are the same, then

𝐼𝐵1 = 𝐼𝐵2 same with 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝐼𝐶2 and 𝐼𝐸1 = 𝐼𝐸2

Therefor 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸1 + 𝐼𝐸2 or 𝐼𝐸1 = 𝐼𝐸2 = 𝐼2𝐸

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 ECE 221: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The emitter dc bias current is then

𝐼𝐸 = 𝑉𝐸𝐸𝑅 −0.7
𝐸

the base current

𝐼𝐸
𝐼𝐵1 = 𝐼𝐵2 = 2(𝛽+1)
and the collector current
𝛽𝐼𝐸
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝐼𝐶2 = 2(𝛽+1)

then 𝑟𝑒
2(26𝑚𝑉)
𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟𝑒1 = 𝐼𝐸

Single-Ended
VCC

RC RC
- +
VC1 Vo VC2

Q1 Q2

+
V1
- RE

-VEE

a) DC bias

Vo

Bre BIb RC RC BIb Bre

+
V1
-

𝐼𝐸1 𝐼𝐸2
RE

b) AC equivalent circuit

Bre BIb
+
V1
RC
-
Vo

RE Bre

c) AC simplified circuit

FIGURE 2-3: Single ended

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 ECE 221: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Solving for the voltage gain:

𝑉𝑜 = −𝑅𝐶 𝛽𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑖 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑅𝐸 ∥ 𝛽𝑟𝑒 (𝛽 + 1)𝐼𝑏
𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜 = −𝛽𝑟𝑒+𝑅 𝛽𝑅 𝐶
∥𝛽𝑟𝑒 (𝛽+1)
𝑖 𝐸

Input impedance
𝑍𝑖 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐸 ∥ 𝛽𝑟𝑒 (𝛽 + 1)

Double-Ended
VCC
+V

RC RC
- +
VC1 Vo VC2

Q1 Q2

+ -
V1 V2
- +
RE

-VEE

a) DC bias
Vo

ri1 BIb RC RC BIb ri2

+
-
V1
V2
-
+

RE

b) AC equivalent circuit

FIGURE 2-4: Double ended circuit

Solving for the voltage gain:

𝑟𝑖1 = 𝑟𝑖2 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
if 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
and since 𝑉2 has a negative value
then
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉1 − (−𝑉2 )
𝑉𝑑 = 2𝑉1
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉2𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = −𝑅𝐶 𝛽𝐼𝑏
𝑉1 − 𝑟𝑖1 𝐼𝑏 − 𝑅𝐸 𝐼𝑒 = 0
𝑉1 = 𝑟𝑖1 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑅𝐸 𝐼𝑒

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 ECE 221: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

−𝑉2 + 𝑟𝑖2 𝐼𝑏 − 𝑅𝐸 𝐼𝑒 = 0
𝑅𝐸 𝐼𝑒 = 𝑟𝑖2 𝐼𝑏 − 𝑉2
𝑉1 = 𝑟𝑖1 𝐼𝑏 + (𝑟𝑖2 𝐼𝑏 − 𝑉2 )
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝑟𝑖1 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑟𝑖2 𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑑
2
+ 𝑉2𝑑 = 2𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑑 = 2𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏
𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜 = −2𝑟 𝑒
𝑑

Input impedance
𝑍𝑖 = 2𝛽𝑟𝑒

Common mode
VCC

RC RC
- +
VC1 Vo VC2

Q1 Q2

+
V1
- RE

-VEE

a) DC bias

Vo

Bre BIb RC RC BIb Bre

+
V1
-

RE

b) AC equivalent circuit

FIGURE 2-5: Common mode circuit

Solving for the voltage gain:

𝑉𝑜 = −𝑅𝐶 𝛽𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝐶 = [𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑅𝐸 𝐼𝑒 ]
𝐼𝑒 = 𝐼𝑒1 + 𝐼𝑒2
and since 𝐼𝑒1 = 𝐼𝑒2 = 𝐼𝑒

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 ECE 221: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

𝑉𝑐 = [𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑅𝐸 2𝐼𝑒 ] = [𝛽𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐸 2(𝛽 + 1)]𝐼𝑏

𝛽𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑐 = −[𝛽𝑟𝑒+2(𝛽+1)𝑅
𝐸]

Input impedance
𝑍𝑖 = [𝛽𝑟𝑒 + 2(𝛽 + 1)𝑅𝐸 ]

EXAMPLE 2.1 Calculate the common-mode gain for the circuit given below.
9V

47k 47k
- +
VC1 Vo VC2

75 75

+
V1
-
43k

-9V

Required:
𝐴𝑉𝑐
Solution:
First: solve 𝑟𝑒 using dc bias
𝐼𝐸 = 9−0.7
43𝑘
= 193.0232558𝜇𝐴
𝐼𝐸1 = 𝐼𝐸2 = 𝐼2𝐸 = 96.51162791𝜇𝐴
26𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟𝑒2 = 96.51162791𝜇 = 269.3975904Ω

𝛽𝑟𝑒1 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒2 = 20.20481928𝑘Ω

Second: ac analysis

Vo

Bre BIb
47k 47k BIb Bre
+
V1
-

43k

𝑉𝑜 = −47𝑘𝛽𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑖 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + 43𝑘𝐼𝑒
𝐼𝑒 = 𝐼𝑒1 + 𝐼𝑒2 ; 𝐼𝑒1 = 𝐼𝑒2
𝐼𝑒 = 2𝐼𝑒1 𝑜𝑟 2𝐼𝑒2 = 2𝐼𝑒
𝑉𝑖 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + 2(75 + 1)43𝑘𝐼𝑒
𝐴𝑉𝑐 = 𝛽𝑟−47𝑘(75)
𝑒 +2(76)43𝑘
= −0.5376586146

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 ECE 221: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

It is defined as the ratio of the differential mode gain to the common mode gain usually in
dB. CMRR is the rejection by the device of unwanted signals common to both input
(indicates the ability of the amplifier to accurately change) voltages.
𝑅𝐶
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝐴𝑉𝑑 | =
|𝐴 |
2𝑟𝑒
𝛽𝑅𝑐 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒+2(𝛽+1)𝑅
2𝛽𝑟𝑒
𝐸
𝑉𝑐
𝛽𝑟𝑒 +2(𝛽+1)𝑅𝐸

It is desirable to make CMRR as large as possible so that the amplifier will react only to
the difference between the input voltages. In order to make the CMRR large, 𝑅𝐸 must be
large.

EXAMPLE 1.2 Calculate the CMMR for the circuit given below.
9V 9V
+V

47k 47k 47k

- + 47k
- +
VC1 Vo VC2
VC1 Vo VC2

75 75
75 75

+
+ -
V1
V1 V2
-
43k - +
43k

-9V
-9V

Required:
𝐴𝑉𝑐
Solution:
First: solve 𝑟𝑒 using dc bias
𝐼𝐸 = 9−0.7
43𝑘
= 193.0232558𝜇𝐴
𝐼𝐸1 = 𝐼𝐸2 = 𝐼2𝐸 = 96.51162791𝜇𝐴
26𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟𝑒2 = 96.51162791𝜇 = 269.3975904Ω

𝛽𝑟𝑒1 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒2 = 20.20481928𝑘Ω

Second: ac analysis

Vo

Bre BIb
47k 47k BIb Bre
+
V1
-

43k

𝑉𝑜 = −47𝑘𝛽𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑖 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + 43𝑘𝐼𝑒

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 ECE 221: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

𝐼𝑒 = 𝐼𝑒1 + 𝐼𝑒2 ; 𝐼𝑒1 = 𝐼𝑒2

𝐼𝑒 = 2𝐼𝑒1 𝑜𝑟 2𝐼𝑒2 = 2𝐼𝑒
𝑉𝑖 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + 2(75 + 1)43𝑘𝐼𝑒
𝐴𝑉𝑐 = 𝛽𝑟−47𝑘(75)
𝑒 +2(76)43𝑘
= −0.5376586146

Vo

Bre BIb
47k 47k BIb Bre
+
-
V1
V2
-
+

43k

𝑉𝑜 = −47𝑘𝛽𝐼𝑏
𝑉1 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + 43 𝑘𝐼𝑒
−𝑉2 + 𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 − 43 𝑘𝐼𝑒 = 0
43𝑘𝐼𝑒 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏 − 𝑉2
𝑉1 = 𝑟𝑖1 𝐼𝑏 + (𝑟𝑖2 𝐼𝑏 − 𝑉2 )
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝑟𝑖1 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑟𝑖2 𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑑
2
+ 𝑉2𝑑 = 2𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑑 = 2𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑏
𝐴𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜 = −47𝑘
2𝑟𝑒
= −87.23166367
𝑑

𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝐴𝑉𝑑 | = 44.20335093 𝑑𝐵

|𝐴 | 𝑉𝑐

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