N T

T E
CO
N GENERAL
DEFINITIO THEORIES
N
ACID CHARACTERISTI
AND CS
CLASSIFICATIO
BASE N
 DEFINITION
INDICATOR &
MEASURING TOOLS pH
DISSOCIATION
CONSTANT
Measure of
pH Acidity
CALCULATIO
 Acid AND BASE
 Ionic Compounds - a BASE
compound WITH a
positive/negative charge  Ionic Compounds that
that break apart in water break apart to form a
to form a hydrogen ion negatively charged
(H+). hydroxide ion (OH-) in
 Strength proportional to water.
concentration of H+ ions in  Strength proportional to
the solution. concentration of hydroxide
ions (OH-).
 Solutions containing bases
are often called alkaline.
ACIDS
 ACID & BASE
THEORIES
BRONSTED-
LOWRY

LEWIS

THEORIES

ARRHENIUS THE PEARSON’S

HSAB THEORY
ACID & BASE THEORIES
 Arrhenius ACID AND BASE
This theory defines both the acid and base as a
compound that is able to dissociate in water, meaning
it breaks up into its ion counterparts (i.e. HBr → H + +
Br–).
An Arrhenius acid is a compound that yields H+ ions
in solution. 
 Arrhenius ACID AND BASE
Nitric acid, HNO3, is an example of an Arrhenius acid
because it will dissociate and create H+ and NO3– ions.
The hydrogen ions then combine with water to form H3O+;
this is because the oxygen’s lone pair attracts the
hydrogen, which is too weak to exist alone in solution.
H-A(aq) → H+(aq) + A–(aq)
H-A (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+(aq) + A–(aq)
 Arrhenius ACID AND BASE
On the other hand, an Arrhenius base is a compound that
yields OH– ions in solution. Potassium hydroxide, KOH, is an
Arrhenius base because it will dissociate and create
K+ and OH– ions.
B-OH (aq) → B+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Furthermore, neutralization occurs within the solution due to
the H+ and OH– ions also reacting together to form water.
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
 Arrhenius Definition
Acid - Substances in water that increase the concentration of
hydrogen ions (H+ or hydronium ions H3O+).
Base - Substances in water that increase concentration of
hydroxide ions (OH-).
Categorical definition – easy to sort substances into acids and
bases.
Problem – many bases do not actually contain hydroxides
 Arrhenius ACID AND BASE

The Arrhenius theory has the most specificity out of the

three theories because it states that either the H+ or
OH– ion must be present to be labeled an acid or base;
however, this is not true in other theories. Let’s move on
to a more general theory that includes more compounds –
the concept of a Bronsted-Lowry acid.
 Bronsted-Lowry ACID AND BASE

This definition of acids and bases can be used to analyze

solutions both containing and not containing water; it has to do
with how well a compound can accept or donate protons.
A Bronsted-Lowry acid, (aka) Bronsted Acid, is a proton donor,
meaning it can release a proton; when an acid dissociates in
solution, it increases the H+ yield. Again, nitric acid, HNO 3, can be
labeled as an acid because it will dissociate and create H+ and
NO3– ions.
Bronsted-Lowry ACID AND BASE

H-A(aq) → H+(aq) + A–(aq)

H-A(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + A–(aq)

 Bronsted-Lowry ACID AND BASE

A Bronsted-Lowry base, (aka) Bronsted base, is a

proton acceptor; when a base dissociates, it takes a
proton from water to generate OH– ions in solution.
So, is NH3 an acid or base? Ammonia, NH3, is an
example of a base because it takes a proton from water
to form the products of NH4+ and OH–.
B(aq) + H2O(l) → B-H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
 Bronsted-Lowry ACID AND BASE

In this theory, water can be either an acid or a base; this is because it

can accept a proton to form H3O+ or donate a proton to form OH–; when
a compound can act as both a Bronsted-Lowry acid or base, it is said to
be amphoteric.
The Bronsted-Lowry theory adds onto the Arrhenius theory. The general
idea of yielding H+ and OH– ions is the same, but this theory is more
general, which allows more compounds to be labeled as acids or bases;
for example, bases do not have to contain OH– (they have to in the
Arrhenius theory) because taking a proton from water forms the
hydroxide ion.
LEWIS ACID & BASE
 LEWIS ACID & BASE

• Lewis acid definition: A Lewis acid is any molecule or

compound that contains an empty orbital that can accept a pair
of non-bonding electrons; it can also be known as an electron
pair acceptor or electrophile.
• This broadens the definition so that more molecules can be
considered an acid. For example, due to their positive charge,
cations are all able to accept electrons, making them Lewis
acids.
 LEWIS ACID & BASE

• Lewis base definition: A Lewis Base is any

molecule or compound that has a filled orbital
which donates a pair of non-bonding electrons; it
can also be known as an electron pair donor or 
nucleophile.
• The Lewis Theory LEWIS ACID & BASE
• Putting together the two concepts above gives us the Lewis Theory of acid-
base reactions. The base donates a pair of electrons and the acid accepts said
electrons. This acid and base pair move electrons between themselves so that
there are individual oxidation number changes but no net change. The
electrons can travel from one molecule to the other or they can be shared
between the molecules.
• The Lewis theory is extremely similar in concept to 
oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. This is because in redox reactions,
there is movement of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in
changes in oxidation numbers, which is essentially the same thing!
 LEWIS ACID & BASE
Is a Lewis Acid a proton donor?
• Not exactly. A Bronsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor. A
Lewis acid is defined as an electron acceptor, and a
Lewis base is defined as a electron donor. All Bronsted-
Lowry bases (proton acceptors) are Lewis bases, but not
all Lewis bases are proton acceptors. The Lewis
definition of an acid and base is the broadest of the
three definitions.
 Pearson’s HSAB Theory

Pearson’s HSAB Theory

- This concept is also known as Hard and Soft Acids and
Bases (HSAB) theory.
- This explains the qualitative concepts of the stability of
metal complexes and the mechanisms of their reactions.
- Lewis acids and bases can be classified by designating
them as hard or soft.
Pearson’s HSAB Theory
Pearson’s HSAB Theory
 Pearson’s HSAB Theory
-These are acids and bases with intermediate character, between hard and soft.
 Pearson’s HSAB Theory

According to HSAB concept, hard acids prefer

binding to the hard bases to give ionic complexes,
whereas the soft acids prefer binding to soft bases
to give covalent complexes. It is sometimes
referred to as Hard-Soft Interaction Principle
(HSIP).
 ACID & BASE Characteristics
ACIDS BASE
 Sour taste  Bitter taste
 Litmus paper blue turns to red  Litmus paper: red to blue
 + metals H gas  Feel slippery
 + carbonate and bicarbonate
CO2
 Phenolphthalein: colorless  Phenolphthalein: Pink to violet
 Methyl orange: pink/red  Methyl orange: Yellow
 HCl, HClO3,HClO4, HBr, Hl,  NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
HNO3, H2SO4, H2PO4
ACID & BASE Reactions

• A reaction between
an acid and a base is
called neutralization.
An acid-base
mixture is not as
acidic or basic as the
individual starting
solutions.
 NEUTRALIZATION-
ACID+BASE SALT and WATER
TITRATION – progressive addition of a solution of
known concentration to a substance of unknown
concentration.
-is used to determine the concentration of acid/base
by adding base/acid of known concentration (titrant)
 TITRATION
INDICATOR:
The final point is indicated either by the physical
change in the reaction or by the addition of auxiliary
reagent is known as an indicator.
The neutralization point is the amount of titrant added
where there is nothing in the solution but salt.
 TITRATION
The neutralization reaction is complete.
The end point is that the amount of titrant added
where the indicator (such as phenolphthalein) changes
color. If that corresponds to the neutralization point,
and it usually (but not always) does, then the two
terms are one and the same.
TITRATION
 What is pH?
(Potential hydrogen)
pH is a measure of how basic or acidic a
substance is. pH has a range of 0-14. A pH
greater than 7 means the substance is basic. A
pH less than 7 means the substance is acidic.
When the pH is exactly 7 that indicates that the
substance is neutral.
 What is the pH scale?

The pH scale starts from the number 0 and ends at the number 14. These numbers
allow the classification of substances based on their pH; the most acidic substances
will be close to 0, while the most basic or alkaline substances will be close to 14.
The lower the pH, the more H+ ions will be present and the stronger the acid. The
most basic or alkaline substances will have a classification between 7 and 14.
 What is pH?
An acidic substance is anything that will give up
a proton. A basic substance will accept a proton.
The pH formula is:

pH = -log ([H+])
 pH
pH = -log ([H+])

• The formula for pH is shown above. pH is defined as the negative log

base 10 of the hydronium concentration.
• The pH is a logarithmic measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions
in a solution. Because pH is on a log scale that means that increasing
the pH by 1 corresponds to multiplying the concentration of H+ ions
by 10! So even though the difference between pH 6 and pH 7 might
sound small, it’s actually quite sizeable. For the pH equation, the
concentration of hydrogen ions is always a molar concentration, that
is, moles of H+ per liter.
 How to calculate pH
• If you know the concentration of hydrogen ions,
then calculating the pH is just plugging in to the pH
equation. Sometimes, a problem will tell you that
an acid completely dissociates into ions in solution.
In this, knowing the hydrogen ion concentration is
straight forward.
 How to calculate pH
• For example: Assume a 0.2 molar solution of HCl completely
dissociates in solution. This means for each mole of hydrochloric
acid, there is 1 mole of H+ ions. (HCl is a strong acid, so
completely dissociates). So the concentration of hydrogen ions is
0.2 M. The pH formula tells us that the pH is the negative log of
the hydrogen ion concentration – which is 0.2 molar. Then use a
calculator to plug the 0.2 M into the pH formula.
pH = -log ([H+]) = – log (0.1) = 0.699
 How to calculate pH
• For example: Assume a 0.2 molar solution of HCl completely
dissociates in solution. This means for each mole of hydrochloric
acid, there is 1 mole of H+ ions. (HCl is a strong acid, so
completely dissociates). So the concentration of hydrogen ions is
0.2 M. The pH formula tells us that the pH is the negative log of
the hydrogen ion concentration – which is 0.2 molar. Then use a
calculator to plug the 0.2 M into the pH formula.
pH = -log ([H+]) = – log (0.1) = 0.699
 pH Equation-Converting pH to
H+
• In some situations, we know the pH and need to convert to the
molar concentration of H+ ions. For this, we need to invert the
logarithm from the first equation, by raising 10 to the power of
the negative pH.
[H+] = 10-pH
• Using this equation, we find that if the pH of a solution is 7, then
[H+] = 10-7 M. If the pH of a solution is 0, then [H+] = 10-0 M =
1M (a one molar solution), and if the pH of a solution is 14, then
[H+] = 10-14 M.
 Measuring pH
There are several ways to measure the pH of a substance in the
laboratory, at home, or in the field.
1. pH Probe: A pH probe is an instrument that has an arm
with two small electrodes in it. The arm is placed in a
substance and the electrodes respond to the pH of the solution.
The pH is typically displayed on a small screen. There are
both large and small portable models of this instrument.
 Measuring pH
2. Litmus paper: Litmus paper is a thin strip of paper that changes
color based on the pH of the solution it is dipped in to. This pH
indicator can be found at some pet supply stores to test the pH of
aquariums.
3. Chemical Indicators: Chemical indicators are chemicals you
can place into solution that will change the color of the solution as
the pH changes. Some common ones are phenolphthalein,
bromthymol blue, and litmus. Although theses won’t give you the
exact pH they are a great way to tell about what pH a substance is.
 pOH (Potential of Hydroxide
ion
• The term pOH is similar to pH, but refers to alkalinity or
basicity, that is, the concentration of hydroxide ion (OH-) in a
solution. The two scales function identically, except that the
scale is reversed. A neutral substance has both pH and pOH of
7. However in the pOH scale a basic substance will have a pOH
of less than 7. The equation for pOH is the same as that for pH
except using the concentration of hydroxide instead of H+:
pOH = −log [OH–]
 Water and its pH
• Pure water has a pH of 7 on the pH scale, meaning that it is neutral.
In pure water, the concentration of hydrogen ions, and hydroxide
ions, are both the same – 10-7 M.
• However, dissolved acids, bases, or salts can make it either acidic or
basic. For example, ocean water tends to have a pH of about 8. Even
a glass of water won’t have a pH of exactly 7 due to the carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere that dissolves into it. Pollutants can
also change the pH of water, so water pH is frequently monitored in
many situations for both safety and research.
 Kw in Chemistry
• Kw is the dissociation constant or ionization constant of water. 
• When water ionizes, it splits into a hydrogen ion (H +) and a hydroxide ion
(OH–). H+ is unstable in water on its own and prefers to form a hydronium
ion (H3O+), but for convenience we usually still refer to it as H +.
• The ionization constant of water represents the degree to which it exists
as ions versus together as a molecules and equals the concentration of
H+ times the concentration of OH–:
Kw = [H+][OH–]
pKw = -log Kw
 Kw in Chemistry
• At room temperature, Kw = 10-14 and pKw = 14. We can use
this constant to convert between the pH and pOH via the
equation below:
pH + pOH = pKw
Thank you…God bless us all!