Escaño, Julie Anne P.

BSED Mathematics 2D

Plane Geometry (Two-dimensional Geometry)

Plane Geometry deals with flat shapes which can be drawn on a piece of paper. These include lines,
circles & triangles of two dimensions. Plane geometry is also known as two-dimensional geometry.

All the two-dimensional figures have only two measures such as length and breadth. It does not deal
with the depth of the shapes. Some examples of plane figures are square, triangle, rectangle, circle,
and so on.

The important terminologies in plane geometry are:

 Point
 Line
 Angles

Point
A point is a precise location or place on a plane. A dot usually represents them. It is important to
understand that a point is not a thing, but a place. Also, note that a point has no dimension;
preferably, it has the only position.

Line
The line is straight (no curves), having no thickness and extends in both directions without end
(infinitely). It is important to note that it is the combination of infinite points together to form a line.
In geometry, we have a horizontal line and vertical line which are x-axis and y-axis respectively.


o
  Line Segment – If a line has a starting and an endpoint then it is called a Line
Segment.
 Ray – If a line has a starting point and has no endpoint is called Ray.
Eg. Sun Rays

Angles in Geometry
In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a
common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle.

Types of Angle
Acute Angle – An Acute angle (or Sharp angle) is an angle smaller than a right angle ie. it can range
between 0 – 90 degrees.

Obtuse Angle – An Obtuse angle is more than 90 degrees but is less than 180 degrees.

Right Angle – An angle of 90 degrees.

Straight Angle – An angle of 180 degrees is a straight angle, i.e. the angle formed by a straight line

Polygons in Geometry
A plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to form a
closed polygonal chain or circuit.
The name ‘poly’ refers to multiple. An n-gon is a polygon with n sides; for example, a triangle is a 3-
gon polygon.

General Formula for Sum of internal Angles of a polygon –

Sum of internal Angles of a polygon = (n−2)×180(n−2)×180

Types of Polygon
The types of polygons are: 

 Triangles
 Quadrilaterals
 Pentagon
 Hexagon
 Heptagon
 Octagon
 Nonagon
 Decagon

Polygon type Definition & Property Types

(i) Triangle – A 3-sided polygon whose sum of  Equilateral Triangle – Has 3 equal sides and
internal angles always sums to angles.
180 degrees.  Isosceles triangle –  Has 2 equal sides and
angles.
 Scalene triangle – Has all the 3 unequal sides
and angles.

(ii) A 4-sided polygon with four  Square – Has 4 equal sides and vertices which
Quadrilateral edges and four vertices. are at right angles.
Sum of internal angles is 360  Rectangle – Has equal opposite sides and all
degrees angles are at right angles.
 Parallelogram – has two pairs of parallel sides.
The opposite sides & opposite angles are equal
in measure.

 Rhombus – Has all the four sides to be of equal

length. However, they do not have its internal
angle to be 90 degrees
 Trapezium – Has one pair of opposite sides to be
parallel.

(iii) Pentagon A plane figure with five straight –

 sides and five angles

(iv) Hexagon A plane figure with six straight –

sides and six angles

(v) Heptagon A plane figure with seven sides –

and seven angles

(vi) Octagon A plane figure with eight straight –

sides and eight angles.

(vii) Nonagon A plane figure with nine straight –

sides and nine angles.

(viii) Decagon A plane figure with ten straight –

sides and ten angles.
In the below figure, we can see the different types of polygons.

Circle in Geometry
A Circle is a simple closed shape. From a certain point called the centre, all points of a circle are of
same consistent distance, i.e. the curve traced out by a point that moves so that its distance from
the centre is constant.
Similarity and Congruency in Geometry
Similarity – Two figures are said to be similar if they have the same shape or have an equal angle
but do not have the same size.

Congruence –  Two figures are said to be Congruent if they have the same shape and size. Thus,
they are totally equal.

Solid Geometry (Three-dimensional geometry)

Solid Geometry deals with 3-dimensional objects like cubes, prisms, cylinders & spheres. It deals
with three dimensions of the figure such as length, breadth and height. But some solid solids do not
have faces (e.g. sphere).

Solid geometry is the study of three dimensions in Euclidean space. The objects which are around us
are three-dimensional. All the three-dimensional shapes are obtained from the rotation operation of
2D shapes. The important attributes of 3D shapes are:

 Faces
 Edges
 Vertices
Go through these terms in detail for different geometric shapes here.

Edges
An edge is defined as the line segment on the boundary that joins one vertex to the other vertex. It
means that it joins one corner point to the other. It forms the skeleton of 3D shapes.  In other words,
it can be defined as the faces, that meet in the straight line is called edge. Following are the list of
edges for the different solid shapes:

Solid Shapes No. of. Edges

Triangular Prism 9

Cube 12
 Rectangular prism 12

Pentagonal Prism 15

Hexagonal Prism 18

Triangular Pyramid 6

Square Pyramid 8

Pentagonal Pyramid 10

Hexagonal Pyramid 12

Faces
We know that all the geometric shapes are made up of flat surface called faces. It is a flat surface
enclosed by the edges. For any three-dimensional shapes, the face should be a two-dimensional
figure. The list of the number of faces for different solid shapes are given below:

Solid Shapes No. of. Faces

Triangular Prism 5

Cube 6

Rectangular prism 6

Pentagonal Prism 7

Hexagonal Prism 8

Triangular Pyramid 4

Square Pyramid 5

Pentagonal Pyramid 6

Hexagonal Pyramid 7

Vertices
A vertex is defined as the point where the edges of the solid figure meet at each other. In other
words, it can be said that, the point where the adjacent sides of the polygon meet. The vertex is the
corners where the edges meet. The number of vertices for different solid shapes in  geometry is as
follows:
 Solid Shapes No. of. Vertices

Triangular Prism 6

Cube 8

Rectangular prism 8

Pentagonal Prism 10

Hexagonal Prism 12

Triangular Pyramid 4

Square Pyramid 5

Pentagonal Pyramid 6

Hexagonal Pyramid 7

https://byjus.com/maths/geometry/ as of November 30, 2021

In mathematics, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends up to infinity. Planes

can appear as subspaces of some multidimensional space, as in the case of one of the walls
of the room, infinitely expanded, or they can enjoy an independent existence on their own,
as in the setting of Euclidean geometry. The two types of planes are parallel planes and
intersecting planes. Two non-intersecting planes are called parallel planes, and planes that
intersect along a line are called Intersecting planes.
Definition of a Plane
In geometry, a plane is a flat surface that extends into infinity. It is also known as a two-
dimensional surface. A plane has zero thickness, zero curvature, infinite width, and infinite
length. It is actually difficult to imagine a plane in real life; all the flat surfaces of
a cube or cuboid, flat surface of paper are all real examples of a geometric plane. We can see
an example of a plane in which the position of any given point on the plane is determined
using an ordered pair of numbers or coordinates. The coordinates show the correct
location of the points on the plane.
The figure shown above is a flat surface extending in all directions. So, it is a plane.
Properties of Planes
A plane in math has the following properties:
 If there are two distinct planes, then they are either parallel to each other or
intersecting in a line.
 A line is either parallel to a plane, intersects the plane at a single point, or exists in
the plane.
 If there are two distinct lines, which are perpendicular to the same plane, then they
must be parallel to each other.
 If two different planes are perpendicular to the same line, they must be parallel.
How do you Make a Plane in Math?
In math, a plane can be formed by a line, a point, or a three-dimensional space. All the faces
of a cuboid are planes. There is an infinite number of plane surfaces in a three-dimensional
space.
Point
A point is defined as a specific or precise location on a piece of paper or a flat surface,
represented by a dot. It has no width. A point has zero dimensions.
Line
A line is a combination of infinite points together. It extends in both directions. It has one
dimension. The planes are difficult to draw because you have to draw the edges. But it is
important to understand that the plane does not actually have edges, and it extends
infinitely in all directions. The plane has two dimensions - length and width. However, since
the plane is infinitely huge, its length and width cannot be estimated. To represent the idea
of a plane, we can use a four-sided figure as shown below:

Therefore, we can call this figure plane QPR.

Identify Plane in a Three-Dimensional Space
In three-dimensional space, planes are all the flat surfaces on any one side of it. For
example in the cuboid given below, all six faces of cuboid, those are, AEFB, BFGC, CGHD,
DHEA, EHGF, and ADCB are planes. They all have only two dimensions - length and breadth.

Parallel Planes
Parallel planes are planes that never intersect. The below figure shows two planes, P and Q,
that do not intersect each other. So, they are parallel planes. There are several examples of
parallel planes, such as the opposite walls of the room and the floor.

Intersecting Planes
Intersecting planes are planes that are not parallel and they always intersect along a line.
Two planes cannot intersect in more than one line. The below figure shows the two planes,
P and Q, intersect in a single line XY. Therefore, the XY line is the common line between the
P and Q planes. The two connecting walls are a real-life example of intersecting planes.

Naming of Planes in Geometry

Planes in geometry are usually referred to as a single capital (capital) letter in italics, for
example, in the diagram below, the plane could be named UVW or plane P.
Important Notes
 Any three non-collinear points lie on one and only one plane.
 Two planes always intersect along a line, unless they are parallel.
 A plane is named by three points in that plane that are not on the same line.
https://www.cuemath.com/geometry/plane-definition/ as of November 30, 2021

Introduction to Plane Geometry

From Latin: planus "flat, level," and Greek: geometrical "measurement of earth or land"
The study of geometry can be broken into two broad types: plane geometry, which deals
with only two dimensions, and and solid geometry which allows all three. The world
around us is obviously three-dimensional, having width, depth and height, Solid geometry
deals with objects in that space such as cubes and spheres.
Plane geometry deals in objects that are flat, such as triangles and lines, that can be drawn
on a flat piece of paper.

The Plane
In plane geometry, all the shapes exist in a flat plane. A plane can be thought of an a flat
sheet with no thickness, and which goes on for ever in both directions. It is absolutely flat
and infinitely large, which makes it hard to draw. In the figure above, the yellow area is
meant to represent a plane. In the figure, it has edges, but actually, a plane goes on for ever
in both directions.
Objects which lie in the same plane are said to be 'coplanar'. See Defintion of coplanar.
Origins
Plane geometry, and much of solid geometry also, was first laid out by the Greeks some
2000 years ago. Euclid in particular made great contributions to the field with his book
"Elements" which was the first deep, methodical treatise on the subject. In particular, he
built a layer-by-layer sequence of logical steps, proving beyond doubt that each step
followed logically from those before.
Geometry is really about two things:
1. The objects and their properties. Analysis of things such as points, lines, triangles.
2. Proofs. A methodology for proving that the claims made about objects are really
true.
Fun reading
Clearly, our world is three dimensional. But in the fictional story Flatland by Edwin Abbott,
he speculates what living in a two-dimensional world (a plane) would be like. It's a fun
diversion from the strict factual logic of mathematics. Surprisingly for a science fiction
story, it was written in 1884, and his writing style is quaintly Victorian as a result. An
excerpt from Chapter 1:
..Imagine a vast sheet of paper on which straight Lines, Triangles, Squares, Pentagons,
Hexagons, and other figures, instead of remaining fixed in their places, move freely about, on
or in the surface, but without the power of rising above or sinking below it, very much like
shadows ...
https://www.mathopenref.com/planegeometry.html as of November 30, 2021

Solid geometry
The most important difference between plane and solid Euclidean geometry is that human
beings can look at the plane “from above,” whereas three-dimensional space cannot be
looked at “from outside.” Consequently, intuitive insights are more difficult to obtain for
solid geometry than for plane geometry.
Some concepts, such as proportions and angles, remain unchanged from plane to solid
geometry. For other familiar concepts, there exist analogies—most noticeably, volume for
area and three-dimensional shapes for two-dimensional shapes (sphere for circle,
tetrahedron for triangle, box for rectangle). However, the theory of tetrahedra is not nearly
as rich as it is for triangles. Active research in higher-dimensional Euclidean geometry
includes convexity and sphere packings and their applications in cryptology and
crystallography (see crystal: Structure).
Volume
As explained above, in plane geometry the area of any polygon can be calculated by
dissecting it into triangles. A similar procedure is not possible for solids. In 1901 the
German mathematician Max Dehn showed that there exist a cube and a tetrahedron of
equal volume that cannot be dissected and rearranged into each other. This means
that calculus must be used to calculate volumes for even many simple solids such as
pyramids.
Regular solids
Regular polyhedra are the solid analogies to regular polygons in the plane. Regular
polygons are defined as having equal (congruent) sides and angles. In analogy, a solid is
called regular if its faces are congruent regular polygons and its polyhedral angles (angles
at which the faces meet) are congruent. This concept has been generalized to higher-
dimensional (coordinate) Euclidean spaces.
Whereas in the plane there exist (in theory) infinitely many regular polygons, in three-
dimensional space there exist exactly five regular polyhedra. These are known as
the Platonic solids: the tetrahedron, or pyramid, with 4 triangular faces; the cube, with
6 square faces; the octahedron, with 8 equilateral triangular faces; the dodecahedron, with
12 pentagonal faces; and the icosahedron, with 20 equilateral triangular faces.

Platonic solids
These are the only geometric solids whose faces are composed of regular, identical
polygons. Placing the cursor on each figure will show it in animation.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
In four-dimensional space there exist exactly six regular polytopes, five of them
generalizations from three-dimensional space. In any space of more than four dimensions,
there exist exactly three regular polytopes—the generalizations of the tetrahedron, the
cube, and the octahedron.
Calculating areas and volumes
The table presents mathematical formulas for calculating the areas of various plane figures
and the volumes of various solid figures.

Mathematical formulas

shape action formula

circumferenc
circle multiply diameter by π πd
e

area circle multiply radius squared by π πr2

rectangle multiply height by length hl

sphere
multiply radius squared by π by 4 4πr2
surface

square length of one side squared s2

parallel side length A + parallel side length B (A +

trapezoid
multiplied by height and divided by 2 B)h/2

triangle multiply base by height and divide by 2 hb/2

volume multiply base radius squared by π by height

cone br2πh/3
and divide by 3

cube length of one edge cubed a3

cylinder multiply base radius squared by π by height br2πh

 Mathematical formulas

shape action formula

multiply base length by base width by height

pyramid lwh/3
and divide by 3

multiply radius cubed by π by 4 and divide

sphere 4πr3/3
by 3

https://www.britannica.com/science/Euclidean-geometry/Solid-geometry as of
November 30, 2021; 4:49 PM

Points, Lines, and Planes

Point, line, and plane, together with set, are the undefined terms that provide the starting
place for geometry. When we define words, we ordinarily use simpler words, and these
simpler words are in turn defined using yet simpler words. This process must eventually
terminate; at some stage, the definition must use a word whose meaning is accepted as
intuitively clear. Because that meaning is accepted without definition, we refer to these
words as undefined terms. These terms will be used in defining other terms. Although these
terms are not formally defined, a brief intuitive discussion is needed.
Point
A point is the most fundamental object in geometry. It is represented by a dot and named
by a capital letter. A point represents position only; it has zero size (that is, zero length,
zero width, and zero height). Figure 1 illustrates point C, point M, and point Q.

Figure 1
Three points.
Line

A line (straight line) can be thought of as a connected set of infinitely many points. It extends

infinitely far in two opposite directions. A line has infinite length, zero width, and zero height.
Any two points on the line name it. The symbol ↔ written on top of two letters is used to
denote that line. A line may also be named by one small letter (Figure 2).

Figure 2
Two lines.
Collinear points
Points that lie on the same line are called collinear points. If there is no line on which all of
the points lie, then they are noncollinear points. In Figure 3 , points M, A, and N are
collinear, and points T, I, and C are noncollinear.

Figure 3 Three collinear points and three noncollinear points.

Plane
A plane may be considered as an infinite set of points forming a connected flat surface
extending infinitely far in all directions. A plane has infinite length, infinite width, and zero
height (or thickness). It is usually represented in drawings by a four‐sided figure. A single
capital letter is used to denote a plane. The word plane is written with the letter so as not to
be confused with a point (Figure 4 ). 
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/geometry/fundamental-ideas/points-lines-
and-planes as of November 30, 2021

Solid Geometry
In these lessons, we will look at the geometric properties of 3D solids, such as cubes,
cuboids, prisms, cylinders, cones, pyramids and spheres.
What Is Solid Geometry?
Solid geometry is concerned with three-dimensional shapes. Some examples of three-
dimensional shapes are cubes, rectangular
solids, prisms, cylinders, spheres, cones and pyramids. We will look at the volume formulas
and surface area formulas of the solids. We will also discuss some nets of solids.
The following figures show some examples of shapes in solid geometry. Scroll down the
page for more examples, explanations and worksheets for each shape.

The following table gives the volume formulas and surface area formulas for the following
solid shapes: Cube, Rectangular Prism, Prism, Cylinder, Sphere, Cone, and Pyramid.
Cubes
A cube is a three-dimensional figure with six equal square faces.

The figure above shows a cube. The dotted lines indicate edges hidden from your view.
If s is the length of one of its sides, then the volume of the cube is s × s × s
Volume of the cube = s3
The area of each side of a cube is s2. Since a cube has six square-shape sides, its total surface
area is 6 times s2.
Surface area of a cube = 6s2
Rectangular Prisms or Cuboids
A rectangular prism is also called a rectangular solid or a cuboid. In a rectangular prism, the
length, width and height may be of different lengths.

The volume of the above rectangular prism would be the product of the length, width and
height that is
Volume of rectangular prism = lwh
Total area of top and bottom surfaces is lw + lw = 2lw
Total area of front and back surfaces is lh + lh = 2lh
Total area of the two side surfaces is wh + wh = 2wh
Surface area of rectangular prism = 2lw + 2lh + 2wh = 2(lw + lh + wh)
Prisms
A prism is a solid that has two congruent parallel bases that are polygons. The polygons
form the bases of the prism and the length of the edge joining the two bases is called the
height.
Triangle-shaped base Pentagon-shaped base

The above diagrams show two prisms: one with a triangle-shaped base called a triangular
prism and another with a pentagon-shaped base called a pentagonal prism.
A rectangular solid is a prism with a rectangle-shaped base and can be called a rectangular
prism.
The volume of a prism is given by the product of the area of its base and its height.
Volume of prism = area of base × height
The surface area of a prism is equal to 2 times area of base plus perimeter of base times
height.
Surface area of prism = 2 × area of base + perimeter of base × height

Cylinders
A cylinder is a solid with two congruent circles joined by a curved surface.

In the above figure, the radius of the circular base is r and the height is h. The volume of the
cylinder is the area of the base × height.
Volume of cylinder = πr2h
The net of a solid cylinder consists of 2 circles and one rectangle. The curved surface opens
up to form a rectangle.
Surface area = 2 × area of circle + area of rectangle
Surface area of cylinder = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr (r + h)
Spheres
A sphere is a solid with all its points the same distance from the center.

Cones
A circular cone has a circular base, which is connected by a curved surface to its vertex. A
cone is called a right circular cone, if the line from the vertex of the cone to the center of its
base is perpendicular to the base.
The net of a solid cone consists of a small circle and a sector of a larger circle. The arc of the
sector has the same length as the circumference of the smaller circle.

Surface area of cone = Area of sector + area of circle

= πrs + πr2 = πr(r + s)

Pyramids
A pyramid is a solid with a polygon base and connected by triangular faces to its vertex. A
pyramid is a regular pyramid if its base is a regular polygon and the triangular faces are all
congruent isosceles triangles.

Nets Of A Solid
An area of study closely related to solid geometry is nets of a solid. Imagine making cuts
along some edges of a solid and opening it up to form a plane figure. The plane figure is
called the net of the solid.
The following figures show the two possible nets for the cube.
How to calculate the volume of prisms, cylinders, pyramids and cones?
Volumes of Prisms and Cylinders = Area of Base × Height
Volumes of Pyramids and Cones = 1/3 × Area of Base × Height
Examples to show how to calculate the volumes of prisms, cylinders, pyramids and cones.
https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/solid-geometry.html as of November 30, 2021

Geometry
Geometry is all about shapes and their properties.
If you like playing with objects, or like drawing, then geometry is for you!
Geometry can be divided into:
Plane Geometry is about flat shapes like lines, circles and triangles ... shapes that can be
drawn on a piece of paper
 
Solid Geometry is about three dimensional objects like cubes, prisms, cylinders and
spheres.
https://mathsisfun.com/geometry/index.html#:~:text=Plane%20Geometry%20is
%20about%20flat,%2C%20prisms%2C%20cylinders%20and%20spheres. As of
November 30, 2021

Plane figure
A plane figure is a geometric figure that has no thickness. It lies entirely in one plane. Below
are examples of different types of plane figures.

A plane figure can be composed of line segments, curves, or a combination of the two. Plane
figures are often categorized as open or closed
Open
The segments or curves of an open figure are not always connected. At least
one endpoint of one side is not connected to the rest. Line segments, curves, angles, and
many other shapes are open.

Closed
The line segments or curves forming a closed figure are continuous, meaning there is no
break. The lines/curves must also form a closed region to be considered a closed shape. A
closed figure has area and perimeter. The following are a few examples.

Closed figures can be further categorized into polygonal plane figures and non-polygonal
plane figures.
Polygonal plane figures
A polygon is a closed plane figure formed only using line segments. The line segments are
called sides. A polygon has at least three sides. There are many classifications of polygons;
they are often classified based on the number of sides in the polygon.

Polygon # of sides Shape

Triangle 3

Quadrilatera
4
l

Pentagon 5

Hexagon 6

An n-sided polygon is called an n-gon.

Non-polygonal plane figures
If any side or part of a plane figure is curved (not straight) it is not a polygon. The two most
common types of non-polygonal plane figures we see in Geometry are a circle and
an ellipse.
Circle
A circle is a plane figure formed by the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from
a given, fixed point, called the center.

Ellipse
An ellipse is a plane figure in the shape of an oval. We usually think of it as looking like a
"flattened" or "stretched" circle. The figure below shows two ellipses.

While the circle and the ellipse are the most common non-polygonal plane figures we see in
Geometry, there are many others. As long as any side or part of a plane figure is curved, it is
a non-polygonal plane figure.

https://www.math.net/plane-figure as of November 30, 2021

Understanding Plane Geometry and Solid Geometry
Plane geometry is concerned with zero, one, and two dimensional objects like points, lines,
and circles; while solid geometry is concerned with three dimensional objects (width,
length, depth) like cubes, spheres, and pyramids.
Points are defined to have zero dimensions—they only have position. They are drawn as a
period.  A line has one dimension—only length. A line is drawn by marking two points and
drawing a “straight line” through them. In plane geometry a line is infinite in either
direction. A plane has two dimensions—length and width. It is drawn as a rectangle with
infinite boundaries. A piece of paper can be used as part of a plane, but it must be kept in
mind it has infinite boundaries in line with the piece of paper without any depth.
The polygons of plane geometry include triangles, rectangles, squares, pentagons,
hexagons, heptagons, octagons, nonagons, decagons, hendecagons, and dodecagons.
A segment is a part of a line. It is the space on a line determined by two specific points that
is between the two points. Triangles are three connecting segments. Squares are four
connecting segments of equal length. Rectangles are two connecting pairs of segments of
equal length.
Pentagons are five connecting segments. They are called regular if all five sides are equal
and irregular if all five connecting sides are not equal. Hexagons are six connecting
segments. Heptagons are seven connecting segments. Octagons are eight connecting
segments. Nonagons are nine connecting segments.
Decagons are ten connecting segments. A hendecagon is eleven connecting segments. A
dodecagon is twelve connecting segments. Any polygon can be regular or irregular. It is
regular if all sides are equal and irregular if all sides are not equal.
One of the most important concepts in plane geometry is the plane, already defined above.
Planes can be determined by two lines, three points, or one point and one line.
They are infinite in size. Triangles are congruent (same size and shape) if they pass the
side-side-side, side-angle-side, angle-side-angle, or angle-angle-side tests. The terminology
means the sides or angles must be equal in length (sides) or number of degrees (angles).
Solid geometry is concerned with polyhedra, spheres, and other three dimensional solids.
Some of the three dimensional shapes include cubes, rectangular solids, prisms, cylinders,
spheres, cones, and pyramids. The difference between plane geometry and solid geometry
is easy to see using squares and cubes. A cube is six connecting squares of equal length.
The length, width, and depth of a cube are all one of the sides of the six connecting squares,
so the volume is S^3 if S is one of the sides of the squares. A sphere is the set of points that
are the same distance from one point, called the center. The volume of a sphere is 4/3 pi
times the radius cubed. The surface area of a sphere is 4 times pi times the radius squared.
Rectangular solids can also be called rectangular prisms or cuboids. Rectangular solids are
similar to cubes, but the length, width, and height can be different.
A cube is just a special kind of rectangular solid that has all its sides equal. The volume of a
rectangular solid is length times width times height=Lwh if L is the length, w is the width,
and h is the height. The surface area can be found using the formula for the area of each of
the six sides. The area of both the top and bottom is Lw, front and back area is Lh, and the
area of the two sides is wh. Since there are two sides for each area, the surface area is
2Lw+2Lh+2wh.
A prism has bases that are two congruent parallel polygons. The number of sides of a prism
is the number of sides of the base that is a polygon. For example, if the base of the prism is a
triangle, there are three sides of equal length between the congruent parallel bases. Or if
the base is a pentagon, there are five sides of equal length between the congruent parallel
bases.
The equal sides are the height of the prisms. The volume of a prism is the area of the base
times the height. To find the surface area of a prism add the perimeter of the base times the
height to two times the area of the base.
A cylinder is two congruent circles connected by a curved surface. The volume is the area of
the circle times the height or pi times the radius squared times the height. The distance
between the two circles is the height. The net or “insides” of a cylinder is two circles and a
rectangle. The length of the rectangle is two times pi times the radius and the width is the
height. The area of the rectangle is therefore two times pi times the radius times the height.
The area of the circles is pi times the radius squared. The surface area is the sum of the area
of the two circles plus the area of the one rectangle. The surface area is therefore two times
pi times the radius squared added to two times pi times the radius times the height.
http://www.actforlibraries.org/understanding-plane-geometry-and-solid-geometry/ as of
November 30, 2021; 5:18 PM

Solid Geometry
Definitions on solid geometry terms:
(i) Dimension: Each of length, breadth and thickness of any body is called a dimension of
the body. 
(ii) Point: A point has no dimension, that is, it has neither length nor breadth nor thickness
; it has position only. 
(iii) Line: A line has length only but no breadth and thickness. Therefore, a line has one
dimension, that is, it is one dimensional. 
(iv) Surface: A surface has length and breadth but no thickness. Therefore, a surface has
two dimensions, that is, it is two dimensional. 
(v) Solid: A solid has length, breadth and thickness. Therefore, a solid has three
dimensions, that is, it is three dimensional. 
The book is a solid, each of its six faces is a surface, each of its edges is a line and each of its
corners is a point.
A line is bounded by points, a surface is bounded by lines and a solid is bounded by
surfaces. In other words, a line is generated by the motion of a point, a surface is generated
by the motion of a line and a solid is generated by the motion of a surface.

(vi) Solid Geometry: The branch of geometry which deals with the properties of points,
lines, surfaces and solids in three dimensional space is called solid geometry.

(vii) Plane or Plane Surface: If the straight line joining two points on a surface lies wholly
on the surface then the surface is called a plane surface or a plane.

A straight line may be extended indefinitely in either direction, that is, straight lines are
supposed to be of infinite length. Similarly, planes are also assumed to be of infinite extent,
unless otherwise stated. The statement that a straight line lies wholly on a surface signifies
that every point on the line (however produced in both directions) lies on the surface.
A surface is called curved surface when it is not a plane surface.
(i) Lines or points are said to be co-planar if they lie on the same plane; in other words,
lines or points are co-planar if a plane can be made to pass through them.

(ii) Two co-planar straight lines are either parallel or they intersect at a point. Two straight
lines are said to be parallel when they are co-planar and they do not meet however
indefinitely they are produced in both directions.

(iii) Two straight lines are said to be skew (or non-coplanar) if a plane cannot be made to
pass through them. In other words, two straight lines are said to be skew when they do not
meet at a point and they are not parallel.

(iv) Two planes are said to be parallel if they do not meet when extended infinitely in all
directions.

(v) A straight line is said to be parallel to a plane if they do not meet when both are
produced infinitely.
In the given picture we observe that, the lines LM, MN, NO and OL lie in the plane LMNO,
that is, they are co-planar. The lines LM and LO meet at L and the lines LM and ON are
parallel. LP and MN are skew lines and the line QR is parallel to the plane LPSO. The planes
ABFE and DCGH are parallel.

A straight line is said to be perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to every straight

lines drawn in the plane through the point where the line meets the plane.

A straight line perpendicular to a plane is called a normal to the plane. In the given figure,
the straight line OP meets the plane XY at O ; if OP is perpendicular to every straight lines
OI, OJ, OK, OD etc. drawn through O in the XY plane then OP is perpendicular (or a normal)
to the plane XY.

A straight line parallel to the direction of a plumb-line hanging freely at rest is called
a vertical line. A plane which is perpendicular to a vertical line is called the horizontal
plane. A straight line drawn in a horizontal plane is called a horizontal line.

Angle Between Two Skew Lines:

The angle between two skew lines (i.e., two non-co-planar straight lines) is
measured by the angle between one of them and a straight line drawn parallel to the other
through a point on the first line. In the given figure, let MN and QR be two skew straight
lines. Take any point O on the line MN and draw the straight line OP parallel to QR through
O. Then ∠NOP gives the measure of the angle between the skew straight lines MN and QR.

A triangle is a plane figure since all its three sides lie in one plane. Similarly a parallelogram
is also a plane figure. But a quadrilateral may or may not be plane figures since all its four
sides always do not lie in one plane. A quadrilateral whose two adjacent sides lie in one
plane and other two adjacent sides lie in a different plane is called a skew quadrilateral.
Orthogonal Projection:
(a) If a perpendicular be drawn from an external point on a given line then the foot of the
perpendicular is called the orthogonal projection (or simply the projection) of the
external point on the given line.

In the above left side figure, Pp is perpendicular from the external point P on the straight
line AB. Since the foot of the perpendicular is p hence, p is the projection of P on the on the
line AB. Again, we can observe that in the above right side figure, 5 the point P lies on the
line AB ; hence, in this case the projection of P on AB is the point P itself.
(b) The locus of the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from all points of a line (straight or
curved) on a given straight line is called the projection of the line on the given straight
line.
In the above left side figure, Pp and Qq are perpendiculars from P and Q respectively on the
straight line AB; p and q are the respective feet of perpendiculars. Then, pq is the projection
of the straight line PQ on the straight line AB. Again, previous left hand side figure, the
projection of the straight line PQ on the straight line AB is Pq. Again, similarly we can
observe that in the above right side figure, pq is the projection of the curved line PQ on the
straight line AB. Again, suppose the straight line PQ intersects the straight line AB at R; in
this case, the projections of QR and RP on AB are qR and Rp respectively.
(c) The locus of the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from all points of a

line (straight or curved) on a given plane is called the projection of the line on the plane. In
this figure, the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from points of the line MN on
the plane XY is the line mn; hence, the projection of the line MN on the plane XY is the line
mn.

Note: 

(i) The projection of a straight line on a plane is a straight line ; but the projection of a
curved line on a plane may be a straight line as well as a curved line. If the curved line MN
lies in a plane which is perpendicular to the plane XY then the projection of MN on the
plane XY is a straight line.

(ii) A straight line and its projection on a plane are co-planar.

Angle Between a Straight Line and a Plane:
The angle between a straight line and a plane is measured by the angle between the given
straight line and its projection on the given plane. Let mn be the projection of the straight
line MN on the plane XY. Suppose, in the given figure, straight lines MN and mn (when
produced) meet at the point R in the plane XY. Then the angle between the straight line MN
and the plane XY is measured by ∠MRm.

Dihedral Angle:
The plane angle between two intersecting planes is called a dihedral angle between the
planes. The angle between two intersecting planes (i.e., a dihedral angle) is measured as
follows: Take any point on the line of intersection of the two planes. From this point draw
two straight lines, one in each plane, at right angles to the line of intersection. Then the
plane angle between the drawn two lines gives the measure of the dihedral angle between
the planes.

    Let XY and LM be two intersecting planes and XL be their line of intersection. From any
point A on XL draw the straight line AB perpendicular to XL in the XY plane and the straight
line AC perpendicular to XL in the LM plane. Then the plane ∠BAC is the measure of the
dihedral angle between the two intersecting planes XY and LM.

 
If the dihedral angle between two intersecting planes is a right angle then one plane is
said to be perpendicular to the other.
https://www.math-only-math.com/solid-geometry.html as of November 30, 2021
https://go.roguecc.edu/sites/go.roguecc.edu/files/dept/Math/Geometry%20Formulas.pdf
as of November 30, 2021