education

sciences
Article
The Impact of Immersion through Virtual Reality in the
Learning Experiences of Art and Design Students: The
Mediating Effect of the Flow Experience
Cristobal Rodolfo Guerra-Tamez

Art and Design Department, Centro Roberto Garza Sada, Universidad de Monterrey, Av. Ignacio Morones Prieto
4500 Pte., San Pedro Garza García 66238, Nuevo León, Mexico; [email protected]

Abstract: This study provides a theoretical model on the effectiveness of learning through virtual
reality technology in bachelor art and design students. Surveys were applied to 200 undergraduate
art and design students, and the data obtained were analyzed using multivariate partial least squares
(PLS) structural equation modeling. Our model results indicate that immersion VR has a positive
impact on the flow experience. Moreover, the data demonstrated a mediating effect of the flow
experience on the learning experience variable explained through motivation, curiosity, cognitive
benefits, reflective thinking, and the perception of value. These results have possibilities for academic
art and design institutions to increase learning in the classroom through virtual reality technology,
leaving the possibility of replicating the model in other areas of study.

Keywords: flow experience; virtual reality; learning experience

1. Introduction
The idea of using virtual reality (VR) technology in education came about in the 1950s
and was first put into practice in the 1960s [1]. The first educational applications of VR
Citation: Guerra-Tamez, C.R. The technology were created in the 1970s, allowing students to explore simulated environments
Impact of Immersion through Virtual and interact with virtual objects [2].
Reality in the Learning Experiences In the late 1980s, VR technology advanced to the point that it could create highly
of Art and Design Students: The immersive and interactive learning experiences. This allowed educators to create highly
Mediating Effect of the Flow immersive and interactive learning experiences [3], in addition to developing interactive
Experience. Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185. simulations and virtual learning environments, which could be used to teach a variety of
https://doi.org/10.3390/ topics [4].
educsci13020185 Since the 1990s, advances in technology have drastically increased the capabilities
Academic Editor: Mido Chang of VR technology in education [5]. Today, educators can create highly realistic virtual
environments that allow students to explore and interact with virtual objects in ways that
Received: 14 December 2022 were previously impossible [6]. VR technology can be used to teach a wide range of topics,
Revised: 30 January 2023
from language [7] and math [8] to science [9] and design [10,11]. VR technology is also
Accepted: 4 February 2023
being used to create immersive learning experiences in a variety of educational settings.
Published: 9 February 2023
Additionally, VR technology can be used to create simulations that allow students to gain
first-hand experience in a variety of topics [12].
There are several types of virtual reality hardware currently available, including:
Copyright: © 2023 by the author.
PC-based VR systems, which require a powerful computer to run; standalone VR
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. headsets, which do not require a computer or console to run and are wireless; console-based
This article is an open access article VR systems, which are designed to work with the PlayStation console; mobile VR systems,
distributed under the terms and which use smartphones as display and processing devices. Augmented reality (AR) systems
conditions of the Creative Commons superimpose computer-generated images on the user’s view of the real world.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Coyne and Wang confirm that standalone VR headset technology has better immersion
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ effects in a classroom learning context; for this reason, Meta Quest 2 technology was chosen
4.0/). for this project [13,14].

Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13020185 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/education

Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 2 of 18

Immersion through VR technology (immersion VR) can also provide students with
increased motivation, as they are encouraged to explore their surroundings and learn
through a VR technology setting [15]. Additionally, using VR technology in the classroom
can help increase student engagement by providing a rich visual and audio environment
that encourages collaboration or simulated experimentation [16]. Furthermore, it encour-
ages critical thinking and creative problem-solving, allowing them to apply what they have
learned from traditional resources to real-world scenarios. Finally, it provides an immersive
way for students to practice tasks such as languages, music, or other areas of study when
traditional methods may not be applicable or accessible.
Therefore, this manuscript proposes a model that answers the following questions:
Does control, the perception of ease of use, and the perception of usability impact immer-
sion? Does flow experience moderate the impact of immersion VR on motivation, curiosity,
cognitive benefits, reflective thinking, and perceived value?
Here, we propose that immersion through VR technology is mediated by the flow
experience, which impacts motivation, curiosity, cognitive benefits, reflective thinking, and
the perception of value in art and design students. Our model proposes that immersion
VR can be explained through the variables of control, ease of perceived use, and usability
perception. The model also explains the impact of immersion VR on motivation, curiosity,
cognitive benefits, reflective thinking, and perceived value. Finally, the mediation of
flow experience between immersion VR and the variables motivation, curiosity, cognitive
benefits, reflective thinking, and perceived value is also studied. This study leads to an
understanding of the impact of immersion VR mediated by flow experience in the learning
of art and design students with VR technology. Therefore, we continue with the literature
review and theoretical framework of the variables mentioned above.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Immersion VR
Freina and Ott define VR technology as a computer-generated simulation of a three-
dimensional image or environment with which a person can interact in a real or physical
way using special electronic equipment, such as a helmet with a screen inside or some
gloves fitted with sensors [17].
VR technology can offer significant advantages for learning: it allows a direct sen-
sation of objects and events that are physically out of our reach, it supports training in
a safe environment avoiding possible real dangers, and, thanks to the game approach, it
increases participation and student motivation while expanding the range of supported
learning styles.
VR technology, in general, is widely used in the fields of education due to its potential
stimulation of interactivity [18] and motivation [15,19]. Immersion is a crucial element
of a VR experience; however, Haskins comments that VR technology can also be non-
immersive when the user is placed in a 3D environment that can be manipulated through
a conventional graphics workstation using a monitor, keyboard, and mouse [20]. Spatial
immersion in VR technology is a perception of being physically present in a non-physical
world. Perception is created by surrounding the user of the VR system with images,
sound, or other stimuli that provide a highly immersive environment. Spatial immersion
occurs when a player feels that the simulated world is perceptually compelling, appears
“authentic” and “real” and the player feels that he or she is really “there” [21]. This study
used VR technology to use its full immersive potential.

2.2. Flow Experience

The flow experience is a self-reinforcing cycle of energy, motivation, and personal
growth [22]. It can be described as an immersion into the present moment that leaves
one feeling energized and fulfilled. It involves intense concentration, a lack of self-
consciousness, a feeling of control over what one is doing, complete focus on the task
at hand, and a breakthrough in performance [23,24].
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 3 of 18

A learning experience with a flow-based approach is one that stimulates and optimizes
engagement, performance, and insight. This type of learning involves an adaptive, open-
ended structure in which learners actively find their way through the learning materials on
their own terms [25]. The flow state creates a feeling of being “in the zone” as the learner
progresses without significant interruption or effort. During this state, learners can easily
recall information taught in earlier modules; longer chains of understanding emerge; skills
are built little by little; and new concepts are acquired more deeply than if they had been
presented all at once [26]. Flow-based learning often begins with an assessment stage to
identify individual needs and preferences [27]. Then, a personalized pathway is created
so learners can progress at their own pace while being presented with relevant content
matched to their interest levels, abilities, knowledge level, or other factors defined by the
instructor [28]. Learners receive just-in-time feedback from mentors or peers related to
their individualized goals and objectives throughout the entire process [17].

2.3. Learning Experience

Experiential learning is an educational philosophy that emphasizes hands-on activities,
problem-solving, and real-world applications [29]. The idea of experiential learning has
been around for centuries, but it was first formally named and developed by the American
philosopher John Dewey in the early 1900s [30]. Dewey placed particular importance on
the idea of reflection—a process by which students look back on the experience they have
had and consider its implications—as essential to successful experiential learning. In 1959,
psychologist David A. Kolb built upon Dewey’s ideas with his Experiential Learning Theory
(ELT) [1]. According to Kolb, successful experiential learning is composed of four distinct
phases: concrete experience (learning through doing), reflective observation (pausing after
completing a task and reflecting on what happened), abstraction (drawing generalizations
from these observations), and active experimentation (testing out these generalizations in
new situations) [31].

3. Conceptual Model and Hypothesis Development

3.1. Control, Perception of Usability, and Ease of Perceived Use in Immersion VR
In VR, user control is input from a user to the system, allowing them to interact with
and manipulate virtual environments [32]. This can include moving around the environ-
ment, manipulating objects within it, or even controlling tools and other applications [33].
The type of control varies depending on the platform and application but typically includes
toolbars or 3D cameras for navigating through menus or operating object manipulation
interfaces. Recent advances in technology, such as room-scale tracking solutions, combined
with improved artificial intelligence capable of simulating realistic behaviors for characters
and objects within VR simulations, are also beginning to enable more interactive control
capabilities [34].
Immersion VR is generally associated with a feeling of being “in control” or having a
sense of agency. This can be seen in the gaming context, where users may feel empowered
by their ability to control the game’s environment and characters [35]. However, on the
other hand, immersion VR can also be associated with a lack of control [36]. This can
occur when the user is so immersed in the game that they are unaware of the choices and
decisions they are making; or when the game’s rules or mechanics are so complex that the
user feels overwhelmed.
The perception of usability in immersion VR learning is that it can be a powerful
and effective tool for improving student engagement and learning [37]. It can be used
to create engaging, interactive learning experiences that allow students to explore topics
more deeply through VR environments or simulations. Immersion VR in learning can also
provide opportunities for collaboration between students and give them the tools they
need to apply their knowledge in a meaningful way.
As users become more immersed in a user interface, they generally perceive it to be
more usable [38]. This is because users who are more immersed in an interface can better
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 4 of 18

understand and interact with it, leading to a better overall experience and a greater sense
of usability. In addition, immersion VR can also lead to users feeling more comfortable and
confident using the interface, leading to an improved perception of usability [39].
The more immersive the experience, the easier it is for users to use the technology [40].
Immersion VR also increases user engagement, which can lead to a better overall user
experience, while also making the technology easier to use [41].
Immersive experiences create a sense of presence and connection to the task at
hand [42]. This leads to a higher level of engagement, which in turn leads to an easier-
to-use experience. Immersive experiences are becoming increasingly popular as users
seek more engaging, interactive, and personalized experiences that are easy to use and
understand [43]. Additionally, immersion VR to learning offers an engaging and immersive
experience that can help keep learners interested in what they are doing. In addition, im-
mersion VR provides an easy-to-use interface that makes it easier for teachers and students
alike to access tools quickly and easily [44]. Hence, the hypotheses would be:

Hypothesis 1. Immersion VR is positively affected by control.

Hypothesis 2. Immersion VR is positively affected by the perception of usability.

Hypothesis 3. Immersion VR is positively affected by ease of perceived use.

3.2. Immersion VR in Motivation, Curiosity, Cognitive Benefits, Reflective Thinking, and

Perceived Value
Immersion VR can motivate learning by giving students an opportunity to explore a
subject in a hands-on and interactive environment [5]. Immersion VR experiences allow
students to explore a subject in a way that traditional classrooms cannot [45]. Through field
trips, interactive exhibits, and VR technology, students can gain a deeper understanding of
a subject and become more engaged in their learning [46]. Immersion VR also provides
students with an opportunity to learn in an environment that is tailored to their individual
interests and abilities [47]. This allows them to gain a more personalized learning experience
and can increase motivation as they explore topics they are truly interested in.
The immersion VR experience can provide a unique opportunity for students to
explore and develop their curiosity [48]. By providing hands-on learning experiences and
interactive activities, students can engage with the subject material in a new and exciting
way [49]. This encourages students to ask questions, explore possibilities, and think
critically [50]. Immersion VR experiences also allow students to make connections between
the material they are learning and the real world. This helps them to contextualize their
learning and develop a deeper understanding of the material. Immersion VR experiences
can also be used to introduce new topics, allowing students to develop a curiosity about
the subject and become more engaged with their learning [51].
Immersion VR in a learning environment can provide cognitive benefits to students
learning by providing an opportunity for students to interact with their peers in a real-world
setting [52]. This encourages real-world problem-solving, collaboration, and communica-
tion skills essential for success in the classroom [53]. Additionally, immersion VR can help
students to develop a deeper understanding of the culture and context of the material they
are learning, which can lead to a more meaningful learning experience [54].
VR technology has the potential to positively affect reflective thinking by providing a
realistic, immersive environment that allows users to explore their thoughts and feelings
in a non-judgmental, safe manner [55]. Furthermore, by using VR technology, users can
interact with virtual objects and scenarios, allowing them to test out different approaches
or solutions to problems or situations. This can help to promote a deeper level of self-
reflection and understanding, as users are able to explore their thoughts and feelings in a
more meaningful way [56]. In addition, VR can also provide a sense of presence, allowing
users to feel like they are in the virtual environment, and helping to further enhance their
reflective thinking [57].
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 5 of 18

VR technology provides users with an immersive experience that can be both educa-
tional and entertaining [58]. It can also provide users with a heightened sense of presence
and a feeling of being part of the environment [59]. This feeling of immersion VR can
increase users’ perceived value of the experience [60]. Additionally, VR technology can
help to create a sense of immersion VR and presence, making users feel as though they are
part of the experience [61]. This can increase user engagement and satisfaction, leading to
increased perceived value. Finally, VR technology can help to create a sense of realism and
believability, which can help to increase the perceived value of the experience [62]. Hence,
the hypotheses would be:

Hypothesis 4. Motivation is positively affected by immersion VR.

Hypothesis 5. Curiosity is positively affected by immersion VR.

Hypothesis 6. Cognitive benefits are positively affected by immersion VR.

Hypothesis 7. Reflective thinking is positively affected by immersion VR.

Hypothesis 8. Perceived value is positively affected by immersion VR.

3.3. Immersion VR and Flow Experience

Immersion VR in a flow experience can be a powerfully positive experience [63]. It can
help to reduce stress, increase focus, and promote creativity [14]. Immersion VR can also
increase motivation and give individuals a sense of purpose and identity [64]. It can also
lead to a greater connection to the environment and those around us. Immersion VR can
help to foster a sense of presence, allowing us to be more mindful of the moment and better
appreciate our experiences [65]. Some studies reported positive relationships between
learning using virtual reality and the flow experience [66,67]. Finally, immersion VR can
lead to deeper learning and understanding as we become more aware of our thoughts and
feelings [68]. Hence, the hypotheses would be:

Hypothesis 9. Flow experience is positively affected by immersion VR.

3.4. Mediating Flow Experience

Immersion VR can increase motivation and curiosity [69], leading to increased cogni-
tive benefits [52], reflective thinking [56], and perceived value [62]. However, it is important
to note that the degree to which these benefits are experienced largely depends on the
individual’s ability to achieve a state of flow [70]. Flow is a state of intense concentra-
tion and focus where the individual is completely absorbed in the task at hand [71]. If
individuals achieve this state, they are likely to experience greater levels of motivation,
curiosity, and cognitive benefits as a result of the immersive experience [72]. Additionally,
the individual is likely to find greater value in the experience due to the intense level of
focus they achieve [24,59] However, if an individual is unable to achieve a state of flow, they
may not experience the same level of benefit from the immersive experience [73]. Hence,
the hypotheses would be:

Hypothesis 10. The effect of immersion VR on motivation is moderated by flow experience.

Hypothesis 11. The effect of immersion VR on curiosity is moderated by flow experience.

Hypothesis 12. The effect of immersion VR on cognitive benefits is moderated by flow experience.

Hypothesis 13. The effect of immersion VR on reflective thinking is moderated by flow experience.

Hypothesis 14. The effect of immersion VR on perceived value is moderated by flow experience.
 Hypothesis 12. The effect of immersion VR on cognitive benefits is moderated by flow experience.

Hypothesis 13. The effect of immersion VR on reflective thinking is moderated by flow experience.

Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 Hypothesis 14. The effect of immersion VR on perceived value is moderated by flow experience.
6 of 18

Based on the literature review, the following research model is proposed, in which
the relationships of literature
Based on the immersion VR with
review, themotivation, curiosity,
following research cognitive
model benefits,
is proposed, inreflective
which
thinking, and perceived
the relationships value VR
of immersion arewith
mediated through
motivation, flow experience.
curiosity, Furthermore,
cognitive benefits, reflectivethe
relationships
thinking, andformulated
perceived in thisare
value study were measured
mediated in anexperience.
through flow educational context by means
Furthermore, the
ofrelationships
VR technologyformulated
(Figure in1).this study were measured in an educational context by means
of VR technology (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Conceptual model.

Figure 1. Conceptual model.
4. Research Method
Our hypothesis was tested through a quantitative study since this is an adequate
method to test the cause–effect relationships between variables [74]. Our research question
was focused on cause-and-effect relationships between the use of VR and its effect on
motivation, curiosity, cognitive benefits, reflective thinking, and perceived value moderated
by flow experience. We collected 200 valid surveys (Table 1). All the information obtained
from the questionnaires was collected in the semester of August–December 2022 through
two different universities in the state of Nuevo León in Mexico. The first was the School of
Art and Design of the University of Monterrey where the courses were (1) Fundamentals of
Visual Culture and (2) Introductory Study to Visual Thinking. The second school was the
School of Visual Arts of the Autonomous University of Nuevo León where the courses were
 Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 7 of 18

(1) Management and Self-promotion and (2) Management and Cultural Marketing. During
the months of September, October, and November, the students worked between five and
ten 90-min sessions using virtual reality technology through Meta Quest 2 equipment
(Figure 2). All 200 students had no previous experience with virtual reality technology,
so they received 30 min of training before starting the sessions. In these sessions, the
student’s perception of learning was measured by exposing and viewing the work of
his/her classmates through the Spatial Virtual Reality software. Through this platform,
students were able to present their work and view that of their classmates interactively
and collaboratively. Being in a controlled environment allowed them to practice their
skills without the need for physical resources. In addition, they were able to explore other
works in a more immersive way. It is important to mention that the works presented were
done physically and later digitized to be presented in this virtual space. Finally, the grade
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
obtained by each student was according to rubrics that included both the physical work 8 of 19
and the presentation in the virtual space.

Figure
Figure2.2.Students
Studentsusing
usingSpatial
Spatial Virtual RealitySoftware
Virtual Reality SoftwareininMeta
MetaQuest
Quest2.2.

5.Table
Data1.Analysis and Results
Technical Information.
The data was processed in five stages. (1) Descriptive statistics were employed to
Scope University
characterize the sample of Monterrey
profile. (2) Additionally, aAutonomous
confirmatory University of Nuevo
factor analysis Leon was
(CFA)
Universe performed on the sample to assess
Mexican artthe
and reliability and students
design university validity of the measurement
instrument. (3) The ensuing
1. Foundations of visualstep consisted of modeling
cultural the structural
1. Management equations for the
and self-promotion
Courses
subsamples to determine
2. Introductory study tothe significant
visual thinking relationships between and
2. Cultural management themarketing
variables, in
Method accordance with the analysis sample. Moreover, an analysis
Questionnaire survey was carried out to determine
Sample size
the moderating effect84of the flow experience. (4) Next, the measurement
valid surveys
instrument was
116 valid surveys
validated with the discriminant validity tested using the Fornell and Larcker criteria. (5)
Data fieldwork November 2022
Finally, a goodness-of-fit diagnosis was made to determine if the model was correct and
Statistics served as anCollinearity statistics,
approximation CFA,
to the PLS—SEM,
real invariance of a measurement instrument,
phenomenon.

5.1. Descriptive Statistics

The sample size was 200 valid surveys that were collected from 2 art and design
schools in Mexico: the Art and Design School at the University of Monterrey 84 (42%) and
the School of Visual Arts at the Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon 106 (58%) whom
169 (84.5) were female, 27 (13.5%) were male and 4 (2%) another. As for the year, 84 (42%)
were first-year students, and 116 (58%) were in their second year. None of the participants
had previously taken the courses. We used structural equation partial least squares (SEM-
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 8 of 18

Table 1. Cont.

Scope University of Monterrey Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon

Control [32,59]
Ease of perceived use [75]
Usability perception [75]
Immersion VR [76]

Measures (7-point Likert) Flow experience [23,77]

Motivation [54]
Curiosity [78]
Cognitive benefits [53]
Reflecting thinking [57]
Perceived value [59]
Statistic software IBM SPSS Statistics and Smart PLS 4

5. Data Analysis and Results

The data was processed in five stages. (1) Descriptive statistics were employed to
characterize the sample profile. (2) Additionally, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
was performed on the sample to assess the reliability and validity of the measurement
instrument. (3) The ensuing step consisted of modeling the structural equations for the
subsamples to determine the significant relationships between the variables, in accordance
with the analysis sample. Moreover, an analysis was carried out to determine the moder-
ating effect of the flow experience. (4) Next, the measurement instrument was validated
with the discriminant validity tested using the Fornell and Larcker criteria. (5) Finally, a
goodness-of-fit diagnosis was made to determine if the model was correct and served as an
approximation to the real phenomenon.

5.1. Descriptive Statistics

The sample size was 200 valid surveys that were collected from 2 art and design
schools in Mexico: the Art and Design School at the University of Monterrey 84 (42%)
and the School of Visual Arts at the Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon 106 (58%)
whom 169 (84.5) were female, 27 (13.5%) were male and 4 (2%) another. As for the year,
84 (42%) were first-year students, and 116 (58%) were in their second year. None of the
participants had previously taken the courses. We used structural equation partial least
squares (SEM-PLS), which is a type of multivariate statistical analysis used to model
complex relationships between multiple variables [79] since it combines aspects of both
structural equation modeling and partial least squares regression, allowing for the modeling
of multiple dependent and independent variables with a single analysis [80].

5.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The proposed model was validated with a CFA of the entire sample using PLS Algo-
rithm with Smart PLS4.0. Table 2 shows the main results of the analysis, in addition to the
descriptive statistics of the constructs analyzed in the model. (To see the questionnaire, see
Appendix A, Table A1. indicators in the measuring instrument).
The standardized loads (β) were over 0.81, which is the ideal scenario. After running
Smart PLS 4.0 and IBM SPSS, the Cronbach alpha coefficients were between 0.770 and 0.962,
values that, according to the literature, are considered acceptable. The composite reliability
of the constructs was over 0.870, and the average value extracted (AVE) was over 0.629
for each construct. Thus, we can confirm the reliability of the constructs of the research
model for the whole sample. In addition, the goodness of fit of the research model is as
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 9 of 18

expected, with levels above 0.9 in the NFI indicator with 0.940 and with levels below 0.08
in the SRMR with 0.074.

Table 2. Loadings, Cronbach’s Alpha, composite reliability, and AVE values.

Composite Average Variance

Construct Items Loadings Cronbach’s Alpha
Reliability (CR) Extracted (AVE)
IM1 0.92
IM2 0.90
Immersion VR 0.905 0.934 0.779
IM3 0.88
IM4 0.83
PU1 0.88
PU2 0.88
Perception of usability 0.857 0.905 0.705
PU3 0.90
PU4 0.89
CT1 0.86
CT2 0.88
CT3 0.86
CT4 0.90
Control 0.954 0.962 0.758
CT5 0.88
CT6 0.94
CT7 0.83
CT8 0.82
EPU1 0.81
EPU2 0.91
Ease of perceived use 0.906 0.934 0.779
EPU3 0.91
EPU4 0.90
FE1 0.94
FE2 0.91
Flow experience FE3 0.90 0.962 0.97 0.867
FE4 0.96
FE5 0.94
MT1 0.82
MT2 0.87
Motivation MT3 0.73 0.853 0.894 0.629
MT4 0.77
MT5 0.77
CR1 0.88
Curiosity CR2 0.92 0.878 0.924 0.801
CR3 0.89
CB1 0.92
CB2 0.93
Cognitive benefits CB3 0.93 0.958 0.968 0.856
CB4 0.93
CB5 0.92
RT1 0.79
RT2 0.85
Reflective thinking 0.858 0.903 0.70
RT3 0.83
RT4 0.87
PV1 0.92
Perceived value PV2 0.96 0.770 0.870 0.76
PV3 0.85
X2 = 12,147; NFI = 0.940; SRMR = 0.074. Note: X2 = chi-square; NFI = normed fit index SRMR = standardized root
mean square residual.
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 10 of 18

5.3. Structural Equation Modeling

The hypothesized relationships in the research model were contrasted using bootstrap-
ping analysis via the Smart PLS 4.0 software. The results for the sample are presented in
Table 3 and Figure 3, and according to the SEM analysis, all of the relationships proposed
in the research model were contrasted successfully.

Table 3. Results of the structural model.

H Description β t Value p Value Decision

H1 Control → Immersion VR 0.649 18.157 0.000 Supported
H2 Ease of perceived use → Immersion VR 0.248 2.938 0.000 Supported
H3 Usability perception → Immersion VR 0.285 2.075 0.038 Supported
H4 Immersion VR → Motivation 0.818 4.982 0.000 Supported
H5 Immersion VR → Curiosity 0.709 6.778 0.000 Supported
H6 Immersion VR → Cognitive Benefits 0.612 6.988 0.000 Supported
H7 Immersion VR → Reflective thinking 0.655 6.181 0.000 Supported
H8 Immersion VR → Perceived value 0.306 2.407 0.000 Supported
H9 Immersion VR → Flow experience 0.910 33.048 0.000 Supported
Constructs R2
Immersion VR 0.839
Flow experience 0.828
Motivation 0.809
Curiosity 0.607
Cognitive
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEWBenefits 0.453 11 of 19
Reflective Thinking 0.518
Perceived Value 0.113

Figure 3. Results
Figure of the
3. Results conceptual
of the model.
conceptual model.

In order to measure the mediating effect of the flow experience, the indirect effect
was measured, which can be formulated as the difference between the total and direct
effect [81]. Table 4 shows that the results were significant; however, having a significant
result in the direct effect, the flow experience was approved as a complementary partial
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 11 of 18

In order to measure the mediating effect of the flow experience, the indirect effect
was measured, which can be formulated as the difference between the total and direct
effect [81]. Table 4 shows that the results were significant; however, having a significant
result in the direct effect, the flow experience was approved as a complementary partial
mediator variable, approving with them hypotheses H10, H11, H12, H13, and H14.

Table 4. Mediating effects of the flow experience.

Independent Dependent Type of

H Mediator β t-Value p-Value
Variable Variable Mediation
Complementary
H10 Flow experience Immersion VR Motivation 0.899 34.438 0.000
(partial mediation)
Complementary
H11 Flow experience Immersion VR Curiosity 0.779 15.28 0.000
(partial mediation)
Complementary
H12 Flow experience Immersion VR Cognitive benefits 0.673 19.786 0.000
(partial mediation)
Complementary
H13 Flow experience Immersion VR Reflective thinking 0.72 23.332 0.000
(partial mediation)
Complementary
H14 Flow experience Immersion VR Perceived value 0.337 5.632 0.000
(partial mediation)

5.4. Validation of the Measuring Instrument

The discriminant validity was tested using the Fornell and Larcker criteria, which was
constructed, and in the diagonal, we inserted the AVE values to compare them with the
other factors of the correlation coefficient. The results show values greater than 0.5, which
confirms the discriminant validity of all the factors (Table 5).

Table 5. Discriminant validity—Fornell and Larcker criterion.

CB CN CR FE IM MT PV EPU RT PU
CB 0.852
CN 0.793 0.851
CT 0.695 0.758 0.871
FE 0.626 0.817 0.756 0.812
IM 0.771 0.888 0.84 0.899 0.723
MT 0.657 0.864 0.818 0.898 0.893 0.714
PV 0.541 0.44 0.575 0.28 0.37 0.367 0.815
EPU 0.672 0.649 0.58 0.637 0.723 0.665 0.367 0.796
RT 0.843 0.793 0.877 0.695 0.773 0.738 0.514 0.782 0.786
PU 0.784 0.789 0.743 0.704 0.83 0.785 0.467 0.728 0.782 0.853

The VIF collinearity statistics were verified, which indicates that there were no prob-
lems with the partial least squares estimates (Table 6).

Table 6. VIF values structural model.

Immersion Flow Cognitive Reflective Perceived

Motivation Curiosity
VR Experience Benefits Thinking Value
Control 2.302
Ease of perceived use 2.298
Usability perception 2.296
Immersion VR 2.711
Flow experience 2.246 1.835 2.086 1.914 1.437
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 12 of 18

5.5. Goodness-of-Fit Diagnosis

A method to calculate the goodness of global adjustment (GoF) is proposed by Tenen-
haus, Amato, and Esposito Vinzi [82]. GoF is a measure of how well a model fits a set
of observed data. It was calculated by comparing the observed values with the values
predicted by the model. The method considers both the quality of the measurement model
and the structural model [83]. The goodness of global statistical adjustment (GoF) was
calculated using the following equation:
q
2
GoF = AVE ∗ R2

The calculated global goodness of adjustment (GoF) was 0.66, which exceeded the
threshold GoF recommended >0.36 suggested by Wetzels, Odekerken-Schröder, and Can
Oppen [84]. Thus, this study concludes that the research model provides a general goodness
of fit.

6. Discussion
In this work, the effect of immersion VR in art and design university students on
the perception of learning mediated by the flow experience was analyzed and verified.
A bootstrapping analysis was performed to analyze the different relationships between
the variables.
Firstly, for the explanation of the immersion VR, we found that the control variables,
perception of ease of use, and perception of usability impact the student’s immersion VR.
These results coincide with other works in the literature that are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Authors who support the immersion VR construct.

Constructs Authors Support

Control → Immersion VR [32–36]
Ease of perceived use → Immersion VR [37–39]
Usability perception → Immersion VR [42–44]

Once the independent variable of immersion VR was explained, its positive relation-
ship with the variable’s motivation, curiosity, cognitive benefits, reflective thinking, and the
perceived value that explained the university student’s perception of learning was verified.
Likewise, the relationship between immersion VR and the flow experience was verified.
These results coincide with other works in the literature, as shown in Table 8.

Table 8. Authors who support the experiential learning construct.

Constructs Authors Support

Immersion VR → Motivation [5,45–47]
Immersion VR → Curiosity [48,50,51,69]
Immersion VR → Cognitive Benefits [52–54]
Immersion VR → Reflective thinking [55–57]
Immersion VR → Perceived value [58–62]
Immersion VR → Flow experience [14,63–65,68]

Finally, this study also verified the mediating effect of the flow experience variable
between the relationships of immersion VR with motivation, curiosity, cognitive benefits,
reflective thinking, and value perception. These results coincide with other works in the
literature shown in Table 9.
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 13 of 18

Table 9. Authors who support the moderating effect of the flow experience between immersion VR
and the experiential learning construct.

Constructs Authors Support

Immersion VR → Flow Experience → Motivation [5,45–47]
Immersion VR → Flow Experience → Curiosity [48,50,51,69]
Immersion VR → Flow Experience → Cognitive Benefits [52–54]
Immersion VR → Flow Experience → Reflective thinking [55–57]
Immersion VR → Flow Experience → Perceived value [58–62]

7. Implications of Results
This study found the relationship of immersion through VR technology in an edu-
cational way through the variables of motivation, curiosity, cognitive benefits, reflective
thinking, and the perception of value. Likewise, within the proposed model, the mediating
effect of the flow experience variable was confirmed.
Additionally, it is important to mention that this study is focused on the perception
of learning in art and design students in Mexico, so this study brings new ideas to both
academics and researchers in the use of this model in other areas of study.
Within the academic aspect, this study makes a significant contribution to the devel-
opment of new experiential learning prediction models. In particular, the results shown in
this study show that the use of VR technology hardware in classrooms enhances students’
motivation, curiosity, cognitive benefits, reflective thinking, and perceived value.

8. Limitations
High cost: VR technology is still expensive and may be out of reach for many schools
of art and design.
Limited accessibility: VR technology may not be accessible to all students due to
physical disabilities or lack of access to the necessary equipment.
Limited content: The content available for use in VR technology is still limited and may
not provide the detailed instruction and feedback that an in-person art class could provide.
Lack of interaction: Virtual reality is a platform that stimulates virtual collaboration,
and in this project, it had a positive impact due to the design of our activities in teams.
However, it is also important to mention that in some circumstances virtual reality can also
cause student isolation given the immersion that they experiment with.
Technical difficulties: Issues with hardware and software are common problems with
VR learning, which can be sources of frustration for both teachers and students.

9. Future Research
Flow experience in VR technology is a rapidly growing field, and its potential applica-
tions in higher education are exciting. In the future, universities could use VR technology
to create immersive learning experiences to generate a state of flow. By providing students
with engaging and challenging tasks at the edge of their abilities, they can be pushed to
their limits and find themselves in a state of optimal performance.
The possibilities for flow experience in VR technology are endless. Universities could
use VR technology to develop interactive learning environments that encourage students
to explore and discover. By providing an immersive and engaging experience, students can
be pushed to reach their full potential and achieve a state of flow.

10. Conclusions
VR technology is quickly becoming a powerful tool for learning in schools. By im-
mersing students in a 3D environment, VR can help them develop a better understanding
of difficult concepts and gain a deeper appreciation for the creative process. It can also be
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 14 of 18

used to create interactive experiences that bring the classroom to life, allowing students to
explore and interact with their environment in new and exciting ways.
VR technology can be used to create a virtual art studio where students can experiment
with their projects. This allows them to work at their own pace and explore different
techniques without worrying about making mistakes. Similarly, VR can simulate historic art
and design pieces, enabling students to view them in detail and gain a better understanding
of their context.
Beyond the classroom, VR technology can also create experiential learning opportu-
nities outside the traditional school setting. Through VR technology, students can visit
virtual museums, galleries, and art shows, allowing them to explore the works of artists
from around the world.
As VR technology advances, it will continue revolutionizing the way art and design
schools teach their students. By providing immersive and interactive learning experiences,
VR technology can help students develop a deeper appreciation for the creative process,
allowing them to reach their full potential.

Funding: This research was funded by the Science Grant on Research for Future Education, University
of Monterrey, grant number UIN22509.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declara-
tion of Helsinki, and approved by the Universidad de Monterrey and Universidad Autónoma de
Nuevo León.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Indicators in the measuring instrument.

Construct Items
IM1 The immersion VR experience motivates me to learn.
IM2 The immersion VR experience makes learning more motivating and interesting.
Immersion VR
IM3 Immersion VR experience helps me improve my understanding.
IM4 The immersion VR experience helps me concentrate.
PU1 The use of VR technology increases my performance in class.
Perception of PU2 Using VR technology improves efficacy within the class.
usability PU3 VR technology allows me to learn at my own pace.
PU4 VR technology gives me new tools to use in class.
CT1 The ability to change the position of the views of 3D objects allows me to learn better.
The ability to change the display position of 3D objects makes learning more
CT2
motivating and exciting.
The ability to manipulate objects (for example, collect, cut, and change size) within the
CT3
virtual environment makes learning more motivating and exciting.
Control
CT4 The ability to manipulate objects in real-time helps improve my understanding.
CT5 VR technology allows me to be more receptive and active in learning.
CT6 VR technology allows me to have more control over my learning.
CT7 VR technology promotes learning at my own pace.
CT8 VR technology helps me get involved in the learning activity.
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 185 15 of 18

Table A1. Cont.

Construct Items
EPU1 It is easy to use this VR technology program in my design projects.
EPU2 I control this VR technology program when developing my design projects.
Ease of perceived use
EPU3 It is easy to master this VR technology program in my design projects.
EPU4 This VR technology program is clear and understandable.
FE1 Enjoy experience through VR technology.
FE2 I found the gratifying VR experience.
Flow experience FE3 I felt in total concentration during the experience.
FE4 I felt that time passed too fast.
FE5 This class through VR technology exceeds my expectations.
MT1 It is interesting to use VR technology in class.
MT2 My performance was good using VR technology in class.
Motivation MT3 After using VR technology for a while, I felt competent.
MT4 I was very relaxed while using VR technology in class.
MT5 I am skilled while I use VR technology in class.
CR1 I like to explore the tools provided by VR technology in class.
Curiosity CR2 I like to know the VR software trends.
CR3 I like to explore VR software options.
CB1 VR technology facilitates my understanding.
CB2 VR technology facilitates my memorization.
Cognitive benefits CB3 VR technology helps me better apply my knowledge and skills.
CB4 VR technology helps me better analyze problems.
CB5 VR technology helps me to have a better overview of my classes.
RT1 Using VR technology in class, I could reflect on how I learn.
Using VR technology in class, I could link new knowledge with my previous
RT2
Reflective thinking knowledge and experiences.
RT3 Using VR technology in class, I could become a better student.
RT4 Using VR technology in class, I could reflect on my understanding.
After assisting in using VR technology in my classes, I recognize the contributions of
PV1
VR technology compared to the face-to-face method.
Perceived value I prefer the functionalities that working in class with virtual reality gives me than the
PV2
face-to-face method.
I think my creative process performs better through VR technology than the
PV3
traditional method.

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