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What is a cell?
Cells are the basic unit of life. They are small membrane-
bound structures containing several smaller structures called
organelles.

There are two main categories of cell, each of which have

important different structural properties:

l eukaryotic cell, including

the cells of animals and
plants

l prokaryotic cell, including

bacterial cells.
The cell membrane and cytoplasm
All cells, and all true
organelles, are contained
within a membrane, based
on a phospholipid bilayer.

The cell membrane holds a

cell together and controls
what enters and leaves the
cytoplasm, as it is a selectively permeable barrier.

The cytoplasm comprises a liquid called cytosol, and all the

organelles suspended in it (except the nucleus in eukaryotes).

The cell membrane and cytoplasm are universal features

of the living cell.
The universal energy carrier
Cells need a constant supply of energy to carry out vital
processes such as protein synthesis, DNA replication and
cell division.
This energy originally comes from
fuel molecules, such as glucose, ATP
consumed by the organism. These
are broken down during aerobic or
anaerobic respiration, and the
energy released is used to make
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ADP
ATP diffuses throughout the cell, and breaks down into
adenosine diphosphate (ADP), releasing chemical energy
wherever it is needed in the cell.
What is a eukaryote?
A eukaryote is any organism
consisting of one or more cells that
contain DNA in a membrane-bound
nucleus, separate from the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotes include:
l animals
l plants
l fungi
l a diverse group known as the
protists (or protoctists).
All eukaryotic cells contain a large number of specialized,
membrane-bound organelles.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is an energy-generating organelle.
It is surrounded by two membranes. The inner layer folds
inwards to form the cristae. The cristae project into a liquid
called the matrix.

outer membrane cristae

matrix
inner membrane

The inner membrane is coated in enzymes, which catalyze

the reactions of aerobic respiration to produce ATP.
Plant cells
Plant cells share all the common features of animal cells,
but also contain some additional organelles.
Plants gain all their energy from sunlight; cells in their leaves
contain many chloroplasts to convert this into a useful form.

chloroplast

vacuole

Every plant cell is

surrounded by a cell
wall, and contains
one or more
cell wall
permanent vacuoles.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts use carbon dioxide, water and light energy to
build sugars. They are present in all green plants.
The chloroplast is surrounded by a double membrane. It is
filled with a liquid called the stroma, and contains stacks
of thylakoid membranes called grana.

grana
stroma

thylakoid membrane

The thylakoid membranes are the site of photosynthesis.

Vacuoles
Permanent vacuoles only exist in plant cells. Animal cells
can contain temporary vacuoles but they are not common
features.

A vacuole consists of a
membrane called the
tonoplast, filled with cell
sap – a watery solution
of different substances,
including sugars,
enzymes and pigments.

The vacuole is important in keeping the cell firm. When the

vacuole is full of sap the cell is said to be turgid.
The cell wall
The cell wall of a plant cell gives it support and structure.
It is made of the polysaccharide cellulose

The cell wall does not seal

off a cell completely from its
neighbours. There are
pores within the walls called
plasmodesmata. These
connect two cells together
by their cytoplasm, enabling
the exchange and transport
of substances.
What is a prokaryote?
A prokaryote is any organism –
usually single-celled – whose
DNA is suspended freely in the
cytoplasm. The word means
‘before the nucleus’.

Prokaryotes can be divided

into two groups:

l bacteria
l archaea.

Prokaryotes have simpler structure than eukaryotes, lacking

organelles such as the nucleus, ER and Golgi.
Bacterial capsules
Many pathogenic bacteria are surrounded by a mucous-like
protective layer called a capsule.

capsule cell wall

The capsule protects bacteria from viruses, or attack from a

host organism’s immune system, by hiding antigens on the
cell surface.
The capsule is usually composed of polysaccharides, and
also contains water to protect against desiccation (drying out).
Plasmids
Bacterial cells often contain several plasmids – small
continuous loops of DNA.
Plasmids are replicated independently of a bacterium’s
genophore (e.g. during bacterial conjugation), and may
confer an advantage, such as antibiotic resistance.

pilus draws replication of plasmid

bacteria together
Plasmids are commonly used in genetic engineering to make
copies of genes or large quantities of proteins or hormones.
This is usually used in genetic engineering
Flagella and pili
Some prokaryotic cells feature
one or more flagella. These are
long helical tubes extending out
of the cell wall, which rotate to
provide locomotion.

Flagella are powered by protein

Many bacteria also feature

pili. These are hollow protein
structures used during
bacterial conjugation – the
transfer of genetic material
from one bacterium to
another.
 https://youtu.be/PJmtkQpqJxE?feature=shared

What is Gram staining

• Gram staining is a common technique used to differentiate two large

groups of bacteria based on their different cell wall constituents -
gram positive & gram negative

• The Gram stain procedure distinguishes between Gram positive and

Gram negative groups by coloring these cells red or violet.
The stains used
Gram Staining
• Gram Positive - Bacteria cell walls are made up of
peptidoglycan containing chemicals such as teichoic acid.
• No outer membrane present
• A violet iodine stain is used as a ‘trapping agent’ into the
thick peptidoglycan layer and resits decolourising (losing
its colour)
• Then the bacteria is washed with alcohol
• Lastly a counterstain is used and bacteria then appears
blue/purple due to the presence of violet iodine complex
when viewed under light microscopes
Gram staining
• Gram negative - bacteria have a thin layer of
peptidoglycan, no teichoic acid present
• Outer membrane is made of lipopolysaccharides is
present.
• The alchohol dissolves the outermembrane
• This exposes the thin peptidoglycan and the violet iodine
complex is washed out
• Counterstain is then applied which makes the bacteria
appear red
Why is gram negative bacteria more
dangerous
• Difficult to treat Gram negative due to the presence of the
additional outer-membrane – this prevent antibiotic drugs from
entering
• They are increasingly resistant to many antibiotics
• These bacteria's have built in abilities to be resistance and can
pass along genetic material to other bacteria and they too
become antibiotic resistant
Preparing a specimen for electron microscopy
Electron microscopes
contain a vacuum as air
particles would interfere
with the beam of electrons.
Water boils at room
temperature in a
vacuum, so the
specimen must be dried
out completely (dead).

Light/Optical microscopes can be used to view living

specimens. Coloured dyes (stains) can be used to make
specific structures more visible under a light microscope.
Light microscopes
Light (or optical) microscopes use lenses to project a
magnified image of an object onto the eye.
Magnification is a measure of how many times bigger the
image is than the object:

size of image
magnification =
actual size of the object

Light microscopes are limited to a magnification of 1500×

by their resolving power (resolution). This is a measure
of their ability to distinguish between two separate points.
A light microscope cannot resolve two points that are
closer than half a wavelength of visible light (250 nm).
Calibrate means to mark a scale on a
measuring instrument to get a correct
measurement – in this case microscope
How to calibrate eye piece graticule (stage
micrometer is used)

We are trying to work out

1 graticule division
l E.g. acetocarmine stains chromosomes
Types of tissues